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Muscle hypertrophy involves an increase in size of skeletal muscle through a growth in size of its component cells. Two factors contribute to hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased muscle glycogen storage; and myofibrillar hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased myofibril size.^[1]

• 1Hypertrophy stimulation
• 4Changes in protein synthesis and muscle cell biology associated with stimuli

Hypertrophy stimulation[edit]

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A range of stimuli can increase the volume of muscle cells. These changes occur as an adaptive response that serves to increase the ability to generate force or resist fatigue in anaerobic conditions.

Strength training[edit]

Strength training, or resistance exercise, brings about neural and muscular adaptations which increase the capacity of an athlete to exert force through voluntary muscular contraction. After an initial period, in which neuro-muscular adaptation dominates, a process of muscular hypertrophy is observed whereby the size of muscle tissue increases. This increase in size is due to growth from adding sarcomeres (contractile elements) as well as an increase in non-contractile elements like sarcoplasmic fluid.^[2] The precise mechanisms which induce muscular hypertrophy are not clearly understood, with currently accepted hypotheses regarding some combination of mechanical tension, metabolic fatigue, and muscular damage as relevant factors. Progressive overload, a strategy of progressively increasing resistance or repetitions over successive bouts of exercise in order to maintain a high level of effort, is one fundamental principle of training strongly associated with muscular hypertrophy.^[3] Across the research literature, a wide variety of resistance exercise training modalities have all been shown to elicit similar hypertrophic responses in muscle tissue. Muscular hypertrophy plays an important role in competitive bodybuilding as well as strength sports like powerlifting and Olympic weightlifting.

Anaerobic training[edit]

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The best approach to specifically achieve muscle growth remains controversial (as opposed to focusing on gaining strength, power, or endurance); it was generally considered that consistent anaerobic strength training will produce hypertrophy over the long term, in addition to its effects on muscular strength and endurance. Muscular hypertrophy can be increased through strength training and other short-duration, high-intensity anaerobic exercises. Lower-intensity, longer-duration aerobic exercise generally does not result in very effective tissue hypertrophy; instead, endurance athletes enhance storage of fats and carbohydrates within the muscles,^[4] as well as neovascularization.^[5][6]

Temporary swelling[edit]

During a workout, increased blood flow to metabolically active areas causes muscles to temporarily increase in size, also known as being 'pumped up' or getting 'a pump'.^[7] About two hours after a workout and typically for seven to eleven days, muscles swell due to an inflammation response as tissue damage is repaired.^[8] Longer-term hypertrophy occurs due to more permanent changes in muscle structure.

Factors affecting hypertrophy[edit]

Biological factors (such as genetics and sex), nutrition, and training variables can affect muscle hypertrophy.^[9]

Individual differences in genetics account for a substantial portion of the variance in existing muscle mass. A classical twin study design (similar to those of behavioral genetics) estimates that about 52% of the variance in lean body mass is estimated to be heritable^[10] and that about 45% of the variance in muscle fiber proportion is genetic as well.^[11]

During puberty in males, hypertrophy occurs at an increased rate. Natural hypertrophy normally stops at full growth in the late teens. As testosterone is one of the body's major growth hormones, on average, males find hypertrophy much easier (on an absolute scale) to achieve than females and on average, have about 60% more muscle mass than women.^[12] Taking additional testosterone, as in anabolic steroids, will increase results. It is also considered a performance-enhancing drug, the use of which can cause competitors to be suspended or banned from competitions. Testosterone is also a medically regulated substance in most^[13][14] countries, making it illegal to possess without a medical prescription. Anabolic steroid use can cause testicular atrophy, cardiac arrest,^[15] and gynecomastia.^[16]

A positive energy balance, when more calories are consumed rather than burned, is required for anabolism and therefore muscle hypertrophy. An increased requirement for protein, especially branch chained amino acids, is required for elevated protein synthesis that is seen in athletes training for muscle hypertrophy.^[17]

Training variables, in the context of strength training, such as frequency, intensity, and total volume also directly affect the increase of muscle hypertrophy. A gradual increase in all of these training variables will yield the muscular hypertrophy.^[18]

Changes in protein synthesis and muscle cell biology associated with stimuli[edit]

Protein synthesis[edit]

The message filters down to alter the pattern of gene expression. The additional contractile proteins appear to be incorporated into existing myofibrils (the chains of sarcomeres within a muscle cell). There appears to be some limit to how large a myofibril can become: at some point, they split. These events appear to occur within each muscle fiber. That is, hypertrophy results primarily from the growth of each muscle cell, rather than an increase in the number of cells. Skeletal muscle cells are however unique in the body in that they can contain multiple nuclei, and the number of nuclei can increase.^[19]

Cortisol decreases amino acid uptake by muscle tissue, and inhibits protein synthesis.^[20] The short-term increase in protein synthesis that occurs subsequent to resistance training returns to normal after approximately 28 hours in adequately fed male youths.^[21] Another study determined that muscle protein synthesis was elevated even 72 hours following training.^[22]

A small study performed on young and elderly found that ingestion of 340 grams of lean beef (90 g protein) did not increase muscle protein synthesis any more than ingestion of 113 grams of lean beef (30 g protein). In both groups, muscle protein synthesis increased by 50%. The study concluded that more than 30 g protein in a single meal did not further enhance the stimulation of muscle protein synthesis in young and elderly.^[23] However, this study didn't check protein synthesis in relation to training; therefore conclusions from this research are controversial.

It is not uncommon for bodybuilders to advise a protein intake as high as 2–4 g per kilogram of bodyweight per day.^[24] However, scientific literature has suggested this is higher than necessary, as protein intakes greater than 1.8 g per kilogram of body weight showed to have no greater effect on muscle hypertrophy.^[25] A study carried out by American College of Sports Medicine (2002) put the recommended daily protein intake for athletes at 1.2–1.8 g per kilogram of body weight.^[25][26][27] Conversely, Di Pasquale (2008), citing recent studies, recommends a minimum protein intake of 2.2 g/kg 'for anyone involved in competitive or intense recreational sports who wants to maximize lean body mass but does not wish to gain weight. However athletes involved in strength events (.) may need even more to maximize body composition and athletic performance. In those attempting to minimize body fat and thus maximize body composition, for example in sports with weight classes and in bodybuilding, it's possible that protein may well make up over 50% of their daily caloric intake.'^[28]

Microtrauma[edit]

Microtrauma, which is tiny damage to the fibers, may play a significant role in muscle growth.^[29] When microtrauma occurs (from weight training or other strenuous activities), the body responds by overcompensating, replacing the damaged tissue and adding more, so that the risk of repeat damage is reduced. Damage to these fibers has been theorized as the possible cause for the symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and is why progressive overload is essential to continued improvement, as the body adapts and becomes more resistant to stress. However, work examining the time course of changes in muscle protein synthesis and their relationship to hypertrophy showed that damage was unrelated to hypertrophy.^[30] In fact, in that study^[30] the authors showed that it was not until the damage subsided that protein synthesis was directed to muscle growth.

Myofibrillar vs. sarcoplasmic hypertrophy[edit]

In the bodybuilding and fitness community and even in some academic books skeletal muscle hypertrophy is described as being in one of two types: Sarcoplasmic or myofibrillar.^{[qualify evidence]} According to this hypothesis, during sarcoplasmic hypertrophy, the volume of sarcoplasmic fluid in the muscle cell increases with no accompanying increase in muscular strength, whereas during myofibrillar hypertrophy, actin and myosin contractile proteins increase in number and add to muscular strength as well as a small increase in the size of the muscle. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy is greater in the muscles of bodybuilders because studies suggest sarcoplasmic hypertrophy shows a greater increase in muscle size while myofibrillar hypertrophy proves to increase overall muscular strength making it more dominant in Olympic weightlifters.^[31] These two forms of adaptations rarely occur completely independently of one another; one can experience a large increase in fluid with a slight increase in proteins, a large increase in proteins with a small increase in fluid, or a relatively balanced combination of the two.

In sports[edit]

Examples of increased muscle hypertrophy are seen in various professional sports, mainly strength related sports such as boxing, olympic weightlifting, mixed martial arts, rugby, professional wrestling and various forms of gymnastics. Athletes in other more skill-based sports such as basketball, baseball, ice hockey, and soccer may also train for increased muscle hypertrophy to better suit their position of play. For example, a center (basketball) may want to be bigger and more muscular to better overpower his or her opponents in the low post.^[32] Athletes training for these sports train extensively not only in strength but also in cardiovascular and muscular endurance training.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^Baechle, Thomas R.; Earle, Roger W., eds. (2008). Essentials of strength training and conditioning (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. ISBN978-0-7360-5803-2.^{[page needed]}
2. ^Schoenfeld, Brad. Science AND Development OF Muscle Hypertrophy. pp. 1–15.
3. ^Seynnes, O. R.; Boer, M. de; Narici, M. V. (January 1, 2007). 'Early skeletal muscle hypertrophy and architectural changes in response to high-intensity resistance training'. Journal of Applied Physiology. 102 (1): 368–373. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00789.2006. ISSN8750-7587. PMID17053104.
4. ^van Loon LJ, Goodpaster BH (2005). 'Increased intramuscular lipid storage in the insulin-resistant and endurance-trained state'. Pflügers Archiv: European Journal of Physiology. 451 (5): 606–16. doi:10.1007/s00424-005-1509-0. PMID16155759.
5. ^Soares JM (1992). 'Effects of training on muscle capillary pattern: intermittent vs continuous exercise'. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. 32 (2): 123–7. PMID1279273.
6. ^Prior BM, Yang HT, Terjung RL (2004). 'What makes vessels grow with exercise training?'. Journal of Applied Physiology. 97 (3): 1119–28. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00035.2004. PMID15333630.
7. ^Joseph Eitel. 'What Causes Your Muscles to Expand When You Work Out?'. Retrieved May 5, 2017.
8. ^Claire Lunardoni (January 22, 2010). 'Why Do You Swell After Workout?'.
9. ^'How do muscles grow?'.
10. ^Arden, N. K. and Spector, T. D. (1997), Genetic Influences on Muscle Strength, Lean Body Mass, and Bone Mineral Density: A Twin Study. J Bone Miner Res, 12: 2076-2081. doi:10.1359/jbmr.1997.12.12.2076
11. ^Bouchard, Claude; Simoneau, Jean‐Aime (August 1, 1995). 'Genetic determinism of fiber type proportion in human skeletal muscle'. FASEB Journal. 4 (11): 1091–1095. doi:10.1096/fasebj.9.11.7649409.
12. ^Miller, A. E. J; MacDougall, J. D; Tarnopolsky, M. A; Sale, D. G (1993). 'Gender differences in strength and muscle fiber characteristics'. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology. 66 (3): 254–262. doi:10.1007/BF00235103. hdl:11375/22586.
13. ^'Search National Drug Schedule - NAPRA'.
14. ^'Controlled Substances Act'.
15. ^Fineschi V, Riezzo I, Centini F, Silingardi E, Licata M, Beduschi G, Karch SB (2007). 'Sudden cardiac death during anabolic steroid abuse: morphologic and toxicologic findings in two fatal cases of bodybuilders'. Int. J. Legal Med. 121 (1): 48–53. doi:10.1007/s00414-005-0055-9. PMID16292586.
16. ^Basaria S (2010). 'Androgen abuse in athletes: detection and consequences'. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 95 (4): 1533–43. doi:10.1210/jc.2009-1579. PMID20139230.
17. ^Phillips, Stuart (July 2004). 'Protein requirements and supplementation in strength sports'. researchgate.net. Retrieved May 15, 2017.
18. ^Wernbom, Mathias; Augustsson, Jesper; Thomeé, Roland (March 1, 2007). 'The Influence of Frequency, Intensity, Volume and Mode of Strength Training on Whole Muscle Cross-Sectional Area in Humans'. Sports Medicine. 37 (3): 225–264. doi:10.2165/00007256-200737030-00004. ISSN0112-1642.
19. ^Bruusgaard JC, Johansen IB, Egner IM, Rana ZA, Gundersen K (2010). 'Myonuclei acquired by overload exercise precede hypertrophy and are not lost on detraining'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (34): 15111–6. Bibcode:2010PNAS.10715111B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0913935107. PMC2930527. PMID20713720.
20. ^Manchester KL (1970). '33 – Sites of Hormonal Regulation of Protein Metabolism'. Mammalian Protein Metabolism. Academic Press, New York. p. 229. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-510604-7.50011-6. ISBN978-0-12-510604-7.
21. ^Tang JE, Perco JG, Moore DR, Wilkinson SB, Phillips SM (2007). 'Resistance training alters the response of fed state mixed muscle protein synthesis in young men'. AJP: Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology. 294 (1): R172–8. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00636.2007. PMID18032468.
22. ^Miller BF, Olesen JL, Hansen M, Døssing S, Crameri RM, Welling RJ, Langberg H, Flyvbjerg A, Kjaer M, Babraj JA, Smith K, Rennie MJ (2005). 'Coordinated collagen and muscle protein synthesis in human patella tendon and quadriceps muscle after exercise'. The Journal of Physiology. 567 (3): 1021–33. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2005.093690. PMC1474228. PMID16002437.
23. ^Symons TB, Sheffield-Moore M, Wolfe RR, Paddon-Jones D (2009). 'A Moderate Serving of High-Quality Protein Maximally Stimulates Skeletal Muscle Protein Synthesis in Young and Elderly Subjects'. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 109 (9): 1582–1586. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2009.06.369. PMC3197704. PMID19699838.
24. ^'Bodybuilders and Protein – Part 2'. Leehayward.com. Retrieved June 19, 2011.
25. ^ ^abTarnopolsky MA, Atkinson SA, MacDougall JD, Chesley A, Phillips S, Schwarcz HP (1992). 'Evaluation of protein requirements for trained strength athletes'. Journal of Applied Physiology. 73 (5): 1986–95. doi:10.1152/jappl.1992.73.5.1986. PMID1474076.
26. ^Rankin JW (2002). 'Weight Loss and Gain in Athletes'. Current Sports Medicine Reports. 1 (4): 208–13. doi:10.1249/00149619-200208000-00004. PMID12831697.
27. ^Lemon PW (1991). 'Effect of exercise on protein requirements'. Journal of Sports Sciences. 9: 53–70. doi:10.1080/02640419108729866. PMID1895363.
28. ^Di Pasquale, Mauro G. (2008). 'Utilization of Proteins in Energy Metabolism'. In Ira Wolinsky, Judy A. Driskell (ed.). Sports Nutrition: Energy metabolism and exercise. CRC Press. p. 79. ISBN978-0-8493-7950-5.
29. ^Chargé SB, Rudnicki MA (2004). 'Cellular and molecular regulation of muscle regeneration'. Physiol. Rev. 84 (1): 209–38. doi:10.1152/physrev.00019.2003. PMID14715915. Lay summary – Len Kravitz.
30. ^ ^abDamas, Felipe; Phillips, Stuart M.; Libardi, Cleiton A.; Vechin, Felipe C.; Lixandrão, Manoel E.; Jannig, Paulo R.; Costa, Luiz A. R.; Bacurau, Aline V.; Snijders, Tim; Parise, Gianni; Tricoli, Valmor; Roschel, Hamilton; Ugrinowitsch, Carlos (2016). 'Resistance training-induced changes in integrated myofibrillar protein synthesis are related to hypertrophy only after attenuation of muscle damage'. The Journal of Physiology. 594 (18): 5209–22. doi:10.1113/JP272472. PMC5023708. PMID27219125.
31. ^Kraemer, William J.; Zatsiorsky, Vladimir M. (2006). Science and practice of strength training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. p. 50. ISBN978-0-7360-5628-1.
32. ^Khorshidi, Eldon (September 10, 2012). 'Chris Bosh Gaining Weight to Play Center'. SLAM. Retrieved April 7, 2017.

Further reading[edit]

• Bodine, Sue C.; Stitt, Trevor N.; Gonzalez, Michael; Kline, William O.; Stover, Gretchen L.; Bauerlein, Roy; Zlotchenko, Elizabeth; Scrimgeour, Angus; Lawrence, John C.; Glass, David J.; Yancopoulos, George D. (2001). 'Akt/mTOR pathway is a crucial regulator of skeletal muscle hypertrophy and can prevent muscle atrophy in vivo'. Nature Cell Biology. 3 (11): 1014–9. doi:10.1038/ncb1101-1014. PMID11715023.
• Frontera, WR; Meredith, CN; O'Reilly, KP; Knuttgen, HG; Evans, WJ (1988). 'Strength conditioning in older men: skeletal muscle hypertrophy and improved function'. Journal of Applied Physiology. 64 (3): 1038–44. PMID3366726.
• Glass, David J. (2005). 'Skeletal muscle hypertrophy and atrophy signaling pathways'. The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology. 37 (10): 1974–84. doi:10.1016/j.biocel.2005.04.018. PMID16087388.
• Schuelke, Markus; Wagner, Kathryn R.; Stolz, Leslie E.; Hübner, Christoph; Riebel, Thomas; Kömen, Wolfgang; Braun, Thomas; Tobin, James F.; Lee, Se-Jin (2004). 'Myostatin Mutation Associated with Gross Muscle Hypertrophy in a Child'. New England Journal of Medicine. 350 (26): 2682–8. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa040933. PMID15215484.
• Charette, SL; McEvoy, L; Pyka, G; Snow-Harter, C; Guido, D; Wiswell, RA; Marcus, R (1991). 'Muscle hypertrophy response to resistance training in older women'. Journal of Applied Physiology. 70 (5): 1912–6. PMID1864770.
• Cureton, Kirk J.; Collins, Mitchell A.; Hill, David W.; McElhannon, Fayette M. (1988). 'Muscle hypertrophy in men and women'. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 20 (4): 338–44. doi:10.1249/00005768-198808000-00003. PMID3173042.
• Glass, David J. (2003). 'Signalling pathways that mediate skeletal muscle hypertrophy and atrophy'. Nature Cell Biology. 5 (2): 87–90. doi:10.1038/ncb0203-87. PMID12563267.

Bodybuilding is the use of progressive resistance exercise to control and develop one's musculature for aesthetic purposes.^[1] An individual who engages in this activity is referred to as a bodybuilder. In competitive bodybuilding, bodybuilders appear in lineups and perform specified poses (and later individual posing routines) for a panel of judges who rank the competitors based on criteria such as symmetry, muscularity, and conditioning. Bodybuilders prepare for competitions through the elimination of nonessential body fat, enhanced at the last stage by a combination of extracellular dehydration and carbohydrate loading, to achieve maximum muscular definition and vascularity, as well as tanning to accentuate the contrast of the skin under the spotlights. Bodybuilders may use anabolic steroids and other performance-enhancing drugs to build muscles.

The winner of the annual IFBBMr. Olympia contest is generally recognized as the world's top male professional bodybuilder. The winner of the Women's Physique portion of the competition is widely regarded as the world's top female professional bodybuilder. The title is currently held by Juliana Malacarne, who has won every year since 2014. Since 1950, the NABBAUniverse Championships have been considered the top amateur bodybuilding contests, with notable winners such as Reg Park, Lee Priest, Steve Reeves, and Arnold Schwarzenegger. Winners generally go on to become professional athletes.

• 1History
  • 1.1Early history
  • 1.31970s–1990s
  • 1.42000s
• 2Areas
• 3Competition
  • 3.1Preparations
• 4Muscle growth
  • 4.2Nutrition

History[edit]

Early history[edit]

Stone-lifting traditions were practiced in ancient Egypt, Greece and Tamilakam.^[2] Western weightlifting developed in Europe from 1880 to 1953, with strongmen displaying feats of strength for the public and challenging each other. The focus was not on their physique, and they often had large bellies and fatty limbs.^[3]

Eugen Sandow[edit]

Bodybuilding developed in the late 19th century, promoted in England by German Eugen Sandow, now considered as the 'Father of Bodybuilding'. He allowed audiences to enjoy viewing his physique in 'muscle display performances'. Although audiences were thrilled to see a well-developed physique, the men simply displayed their bodies as part of strength demonstrations or wrestling matches. Sandow had a stage show built around these displays through his manager, Florenz Ziegfeld. The Oscar-winning 1936 musical filmThe Great Ziegfeld depicts the beginning of modern bodybuilding, when Sandow began to display his body for carnivals.

Elsa 4 movie. Sandow was so successful at flexing and posing his physique that he later created several businesses around his fame, and was among the first to market products branded with his name. He was credited with inventing and selling the first exercise equipment for the masses: machined dumbbells, spring pulleys, and tension bands. Even his image was sold by the thousands in 'cabinet cards' and other prints. Sandow was a perfect 'Gracilian', a standard of ideal body proportions close to those of ancient Greek and Roman statues. Men's physiques were then judged by how closely they matched these proportions.

First large-scale bodybuilding competition[edit]

Sandow organized the first bodybuilding contest on September 14, 1901, called the 'Great Competition'. It was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London. Judged by Sandow, Sir Charles Lawes, and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the contest was a great success and many bodybuilding enthusiasts were turned away due to the overwhelming amount of audience members.^[4] The trophy presented to the winner was a gold statue of Sandow sculpted by Frederick Pomeroy. The winner was William L. Murray of Nottingham. The silver Sandow trophy was presented to second-place winner D. Cooper. The bronze Sandow trophy — now the most famous of all — was presented to third-place winner A.C. Smythe. In 1950, this same bronze trophy was presented to Steve Reeves for winning the inaugural NABBAMr. Universe contest. It would not resurface again until 1977 when the winner of the IFBBMr. Olympia contest, Frank Zane, was presented with a replica of the bronze trophy. Since then, Mr. Olympia winners have been consistently awarded a replica of the bronze Sandow.

On January 16, 1904, the first large-scale bodybuilding competition in America took place at Madison Square Garden in New York City. The competition was promoted by Bernarr Macfadden, the father of physical culture and publisher of original bodybuilding magazines such as Health & Strength. The winner was Al Treloar, who was declared 'The Most Perfectly Developed Man in the World'.^[5] Treloar won a $1,000 cash prize, a substantial sum at that time. Two weeks later, Thomas Edison made a film of Treloar's posing routine. Edison had also made two films of Sandow a few years before. Those were the first three motion pictures featuring a bodybuilder. In the early 20th century, Macfadden and Charles Atlas continued to promote bodybuilding across the world. Alois P. Swoboda was an early pioneer in America.

Notable early bodybuilders[edit]

Many other important bodybuilders in the early history of bodybuilding prior to 1930 include: Earle Liederman (writer of some of bodybuilding's earliest books), Zishe Breitbart, Georg Hackenschmidt, Emy Nkemena, George F. Jowett, Finn Hateral (a pioneer in the art of posing), Frank Saldo, Monte Saldo, William Bankier, Launceston Elliot, Sig Klein, Sgt. Alfred Moss, Joe Nordquist, Lionel Strongfort ('Strongfortism'),^[6]Gustav Frištenský, Ralph Parcaut (a champion wrestler who also authored an early book on 'physical culture'), and Alan P. Mead (who became an impressive muscle champion despite the fact that he lost a leg in World War I). Actor Francis X. Bushman, who was a disciple of Sandow, started his career as a bodybuilder and sculptor's model before beginning his famous silent movie career.

1950s–1960s[edit]

Bodybuilding became more popular in the 1950s and 1960s with the emergence of strength and gymnastics champions, and the simultaneous popularization of bodybuilding magazines, training principles, nutrition for bulking up and cutting down, the use of protein and other food supplements, and the opportunity to enter physique contests. The number of bodybuilding organizations grew, and most notably the International Federation of Bodybuilders (IFBB) was founded in 1946 by Canadian brothers Joe and Ben Weider. Other bodybuilding organizations included the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), National Amateur Bodybuilding Association (NABBA), and the World Bodybuilding Guild (WBBG). Consequently, the male-dominated contests grew both in number and in size. Besides the many 'Mr. XXX' (insert town, city, state, or region) championships, the most prestigious titles^{[according to whom?]} were Mr. America, Mr. World, Mr. Universe, Mr. Galaxy, and ultimately Mr. Olympia, which was started in 1965 by the IFBB and is now considered the most important bodybuilding competition in the world.

During the 1950s, the most successful and most famous competing bodybuilders^{[according to whom?]} were Bill Pearl, Reg Park, Leroy Colbert, and Clarence Ross. Certain bodybuilders rose to fame thanks to the relatively new medium of television, as well as cinema. The most notable^{[according to whom?]} were Jack LaLanne, Steve Reeves, Reg Park, and Mickey Hargitay. While there were well-known gyms throughout the country during the 1950s (such as Vince's Gym in North Hollywood, California and Vic Tanny's chain gyms), there were still segments of the United States that had no 'hardcore' bodybuilding gyms until the advent of Gold's Gym in the mid-1960s. Finally, the famed Muscle Beach in Santa Monica continued its popularity as the place to be for witnessing acrobatic acts, feats of strength, and the like. The movement grew more in the 1960s with increased TV and movie exposure, as bodybuilders were typecast in popular shows and movies.^{[citation needed]}

1970s–1990s[edit]

New organizations[edit]

In the 1970s, bodybuilding had major publicity thanks to the appearance of Arnold Schwarzenegger, Franco Columbu, Lou Ferrigno, and others in the 1977 docudramaPumping Iron. By this time, the IFBB dominated the competitive bodybuilding landscape and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) took a back seat. The National Physique Committee (NPC) was formed in 1981 by Jim Manion,^[7] who had just stepped down as chairman of the AAU Physique Committee. The NPC has gone on to become the most successful bodybuilding organization in America and is the amateur division of the IFBB. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the decline of AAU-sponsored bodybuilding contests. In 1999, the AAU voted to discontinue its bodybuilding events.

Anabolic/androgenic steroid use[edit]

This period also saw the rise of anabolic steroids in bodybuilding and many other sports. In bodybuilding lore, this is partly attributed to the rise of 'mass monsters', beginning with Arnold Schwarzenegger, Sergio Oliva, and Lou Ferrigno in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and continuing through the 1980s with Lee Haney, the 1990s with Dorian Yates, Ronnie Coleman, and Markus Rühl, and up to the present day. Bodybuilders such as Greg Kovacs attained mass and size never seen previously but were not successful at the pro level. Others were renowned for their spectacular development of a particular body part, like Tom Platz or Paul Demayo for their leg muscles. At the time of shooting Pumping Iron, Schwarzenegger (while never admitting to steroid use until long after his retirement) said that 'you have to do anything you can to get the advantage in competition'.^{[citation needed]} He would later say that he does not regret using anything.^[8]

To combat steroid use and in the hopes of becoming a member of the IOC, the IFBB introduced doping tests for both steroids and other banned substances. Although doping tests occurred, the majority of professional bodybuilders still used anabolic steroids for competition. During the 1970s, the use of anabolic steroids was openly discussed, partly due to the fact they were legal.^[9] In the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990, U.S. Congress placed anabolic steroids into Schedule III of the Controlled Substances Act (CSA). In Canada, steroids are listed under Schedule IV of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, enacted by the federal Parliament in 1996.^[10]

World Bodybuilding Federation[edit]

In 1990, professional wrestling promoter Vince McMahon announced that he was forming a new bodybuilding organization named the World Bodybuilding Federation (WBF). McMahon wanted to bring WWF-style showmanship and bigger prize money to the sport of bodybuilding. A number of IFBB stars were recruited but the roster was never very large and featured the same athletes competing; the most notable winner and first WBF champion was Gary Strydom. McMahon formally dissolved the WBF in July 1992. Reasons for this reportedly included lack of income from the pay-per-view broadcasts of the contests, slow sales of the WBF's magazine Bodybuilding Lifestyles (later WBF Magazine), and the expense of paying multiple six-figure contracts while producing two TV shows and a monthly magazine.

2000s[edit]

In 2003, Joe Weider sold Weider Publications to AMI, which owns the National Enquirer. The position of president of the IFBB was filled by Rafael Santonja following the death of Ben Weider in October 2008. In 2004, contest promoter Wayne DeMilia broke ranks with the IFBB and AMI took over the promotion of the Mr. Olympia contest.

In the early 21st century, patterns of consumption and recreation similar to those of the United States became more widespread in Europe and especially in Eastern Europe following the collapse of the Soviet Union. This resulted in the emergence of whole new populations of bodybuilders from former Eastern Bloc states.

Olympic sport discussion[edit]

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In the early 2000s, the IFBB was attempting to make bodybuilding an Olympic sport. It obtained full IOC membership in 2000 and was attempting to get approved as a demonstration event at the Olympics, which would hopefully lead to it being added as a full contest. This did not happen and Olympic recognition for bodybuilding remains controversial since many argue that bodybuilding is not a sport.^[11]

Areas[edit]

Professional bodybuilding[edit]

In the modern bodybuilding industry, the term 'professional' generally means a bodybuilder who has won qualifying competitions as an amateur and has earned a 'pro card' from their respective organization. Professionals earn the right to compete in competitions that include monetary prizes. A pro card also prohibits the athlete from competing in federations other than the one from which they have received the pro card.^[12] Depending on the level of success, these bodybuilders may receive monetary compensation from sponsors, much like athletes in other sports.

Natural bodybuilding [edit]

Due to the growing concerns of the high cost, health consequences, and illegal nature of some steroids, many organizations have formed in response and have deemed themselves 'natural' bodybuilding competitions. In addition to the concerns noted, many promoters of bodybuilding have sought to shed the 'freakish' perception that the general public has of bodybuilding and have successfully introduced a more mainstream audience to the sport of bodybuilding by including competitors whose physiques appear much more attainable and realistic.

In natural contests, the testing protocol ranges among organizations from lie detectors to urinalysis. Penalties also range from organization to organization from suspensions to strict bans from competition. It is also important to note that natural organizations also have their own list of banned substances and it is important to refer to each organization's website for more information about which substances are banned from competition. There are many natural bodybuilding organizations; some of the larger ones include: MuscleMania, Ultimate Fitness Events (UFE), INBF/WNBF, and INBA/PNBA. These organizations either have an American or worldwide presence and are not limited to the country in which they are headquartered.

Other notable natural bodybuilding organizations include the National Physique Committee (NPC) and the North American Natural Bodybuilding Federation (NANBF). NPC competitions screen competitors using ineffective lie detector tests to ensure fair practices. Such tests are very error-prone, and some competitors are not even tested.^{[citation needed]}

This is how the NPC differs from the NANBF. The NANBF takes a more direct approach by taking urine samples from all competitors that are tested for steroids and any other substances on the banned list. The NANBF also differs from the NPC when it comes to judging. The criteria for certain poses differs from organization to organization. The NANBF even has an elevated calf pose which is unique for their competitions.^{[citation needed]}

Female bodybuilding[edit]

The first U.S. Women's National Physique Championship, promoted by Henry McGhee and held in Canton, Ohio in 1978, is generally regarded as the first true female bodybuilding contest—that is, the first contest where the entrants were judged solely on muscularity.^[13] In 1980, the first Ms. Olympia (initially known as the 'Miss' Olympia), the most prestigious contest for professionals, was held. The first winner was Rachel McLish, who had also won the NPC's USA Championship earlier in the year. The contest was a major turning point for female bodybuilding. McLish inspired many future competitors to start training and competing. In 1985, a movie called Pumping Iron II: The Women was released. It documented the preparation of several women for the 1983 Caesars Palace World Cup Championship. Competitors prominently featured in the film were Kris Alexander, Lori Bowen, Lydia Cheng, Carla Dunlap, Bev Francis, and McLish. At the time, Francis was actually a powerlifter, though she soon made a successful transition to bodybuilding, becoming one of the leading competitors of the late 1980s and early 1990s.

In recent years, the related areas of fitness and figure competition have increased in popularity, surpassing that of female bodybuilding, and have provided an alternative for women who choose not to develop the level of muscularity necessary for bodybuilding. McLish would closely resemble what is thought of today as a fitness and figure competitor, instead of what is now considered a female bodybuilder. Fitness competitions also have a gymnastic element to them. A study by the Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine found that female bodybuilders who are taking anabolic steroids are more likely to have qualified for substance dependence disorder, to have been diagnosed with a psychiatric illness, or to have a history of sexual abuse.^[14]

E. Wilma Conner competed in the 2011 NPC Armbrust Pro Gym Warrior Classic Championships in Loveland, Colorado, at the age of 75 years and 349 days.^[15]

Competition[edit]

In competitive bodybuilding, bodybuilders aspire to develop and maintain an aesthetically pleasing body and balanced physique.^[16][17] In prejudging, competitors do a series of mandatory poses: the front lat spread, rear lat spread, front double biceps, back double biceps, side chest, side triceps, Most Muscular (men only), abdominals and thighs. Each competitor also performs a personal choreographed routine to display their physique. A posedown is usually held at the end of a posing round, while judges are finishing their scoring. Bodybuilders usually spend a lot of time practising their posing in front of mirrors or under the guidance of their coach.

In contrast to strongman or powerlifting competitions, where physical strength is paramount, or to Olympic weightlifting, where the main point is equally split between strength and technique, bodybuilding competitions typically emphasize condition, size, and symmetry. Different organizations emphasize particular aspects of competition, and sometimes have different categories in which to compete.

Preparations[edit]

Bulking and cutting[edit]

The general strategy adopted by most present-day competitive bodybuilders is to make muscle gains for most of the year (known as the 'off-season') and, approximately 12–14 weeks from competition, lose a maximum of body fat (referred to as 'cutting') while preserving as much muscular mass as possible. The bulking phase entails remaining in a net positive energy balance (calorie surplus). The amount of a surplus in which a person remains is based on the person's goals, as a bigger surplus and longer bulking phase will create more fat tissue. The surplus of calories relative to one's energy balance will ensure that muscles remain in a state of anabolism.

The cutting phase entails remaining in a net negative energy balance (calorie deficit). The main goal of cutting is to oxidize fat while preserving as much muscle as possible. The larger the calorie deficit, the faster one will lose weight. However, a large calorie deficit will also create the risk of losing muscle tissue.^[18]

The bulking and cutting strategy is effective because there is a well-established link between muscle hypertrophy and being in a state of positive energy balance.^[19] A sustained period of caloric surplus will allow the athlete to gain more fat-free mass than they could otherwise gain under eucaloric conditions. Some gain in fat mass is expected, which athletes seek to oxidize in a cutting period while maintaining as much lean mass as possible.

Clean bulking[edit]

Many non-competitive bodybuilders choose not to adopt this conventional strategy, as it often results in significant unwanted fat gain during the 'bulking' phase. The attempt to increase muscle mass in one's body without any gain in fat is called clean bulking. Competitive bodybuilders focus their efforts to achieve a peak appearance during a brief 'competition season'.^{[citation needed]} Clean bulking takes longer and is a more refined approach to achieving the body fat and muscle mass percentage a person is looking for. A common tactic for keeping fat low and muscle mass high would be to have higher calorie and lower calorie days to maintain a balance between gain and loss. Many clean bulk diets start off with a moderate amount of carbs, moderate amount of protein, and a decently low amount of fats. 'Gaining lean muscle means going for leaner cuts of meat, like flank steaks and fillets, chicken, and, of course, fish,' says White^[who?]. 'Enjoy your meat with some starch: rice, beans, quinoa, whole-grain couscous, or sweet potato, for example'.^[20] To maintain a clean bulk it is important to reach calorie goals every day. Macronutrient goals will be different for each person, but, it is ideal to get as close as possible.

Dirty bulking[edit]

'Dirty bulking' is the process of eating at a massive caloric surplus, without trying to figure out the exact amount of ingested macronutrients (carbs, fats, and proteins). Weightlifters who are attempting to gain mass quickly with no aesthetic concerns often choose to use the 'dirty bulk' method.^[21]

Pre-competition[edit]

In the last week leading up to a contest, bodybuilders usually decrease their consumption of water, sodium, and carbohydrates, the former two to alter how water is retained by the body and the latter to reduce glycogen in the muscle. The day before the show, water is removed from the diet, and diuretics may be introduced, while carbohydrate loading is undertaken to increase the size of the muscles through replenishment of their glycogen. The goal is to maximize leanness and increase the visibility of veins, or 'vascularity'. The muscular definition and vascularity are further enhanced immediately before appearing on stage by darkening the skin through tanning products and applying oils to the skin to increase shine. Some competitors will eat sugar-rich foods to increase the visibility of their veins. A final step, called 'pumping', consists in performing exercises with light weights or other kinds of low resistance (for instance two athletes can 'pump' each other by holding a towel and pulling in turn), just before the contest, to fill the muscles with blood and further increase their size and density.

Muscle growth[edit]

Bodybuilders use three main strategies to maximize muscle hypertrophy:

• Strength training through weights or elastic/hydraulic resistance.
• Specialized nutrition, incorporating extra protein and supplements when necessary.
• Adequate rest, including sleep and recuperation between workouts.

Bodybuilders often shorten these three steps into the well-known motto 'eat clean, train hard, sleep well'.

Weight training[edit]

Intensive weight training causes micro-tears to the muscles being trained; this is generally known as microtrauma. These micro-tears in the muscle contribute to the soreness felt after exercise, called delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). It is the repair of these micro-traumas that results in muscle growth. Normally, this soreness becomes most apparent a day or two after a workout. However, as muscles become adapted to the exercises, soreness tends to decrease.^[22]

Weight training aims to build muscle by prompting two different types of hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy leads to larger muscles and so is favored by bodybuilders more than myofibrillar hypertrophy, which builds athletic strength. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy is triggered by increasing repetitions, whereas myofibrillar hypertrophy is triggered by lifting heavier weight.^[23] In either case, there is an increase in both size and strength of the muscles (compared to what happens if that same individual does not lift weights at all), however, the emphasis is different.

Many trainees like to cycle between the two methods in order to prevent the body from adapting (maintaining a progressive overload), possibly emphasizing whichever method more suits their goals; typically, a bodybuilder will aim at sarcoplasmic hypertrophy most of the time but may change to a myofibrillar hypertrophy kind of training temporarily in order to move past a plateau. However, no real evidence has been provided to show that trainees ever reach this plateau, and rather was more of a hype created from 'muscular confusion'.^{[clarification needed][citation needed]}

Nutrition[edit]

The high levels of muscle growth and repair achieved by bodybuilders require a specialized diet. Generally speaking, bodybuilders require more calories than the average person of the same weight to provide the protein and energy requirements needed to support their training and increase muscle mass. In preparation of a contest, a sub-maintenance level of food energy is combined with cardiovascular exercise to lose body fat. Proteins, carbohydrates and fats are the three major macronutrients that the human body needs in order to build muscle.^[24] The ratios of calories from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats vary depending on the goals of the bodybuilder.^[25]

Carbohydrates[edit]

Carbohydrates play an important role for bodybuilders. They give the body energy to deal with the rigors of training and recovery. Carbohydrates also promote secretion of insulin, a hormone enabling cells to get the glucose they need. Insulin also carries amino acids into cells and promotes protein synthesis.^[26] Insulin has steroid-like effects in terms of muscle gains.^[27] It is impossible to promote protein synthesis without the existence of insulin, which means that without ingesting carbohydrates or protein—which also induces the release of insulin—it is impossible to add muscle mass.^[28] Bodybuilders seek out low-glycemicpolysaccharides and other slowly digesting carbohydrates, which release energy in a more stable fashion than high-glycemic sugars and starches. This is important as high-glycemic carbohydrates cause a sharp insulin response, which places the body in a state where it is likely to store additional food energy as fat. However, bodybuilders frequently do ingest some quickly digesting sugars (often in form of pure dextrose or maltodextrin) just before, during, and/or just after a workout. This may help to replenish glycogen stored within the muscle, and to stimulate muscle protein synthesis.^[29]

Protein[edit]

The motor proteins actin and myosin generate the forces exerted by contracting muscles. Current recommendations suggest that bodybuilders should consume 25–30% of protein per total calorie intake to further their goal of maintaining and improving their body composition.^[30] This is a widely debated topic, with many arguing that 1 gram of protein per pound of body weight per day is ideal, some suggesting that less is sufficient, while others recommending 1.5, 2, or more.^[31] It is believed that protein needs to be consumed frequently throughout the day, especially during/after a workout, and before sleep.^[32] There is also some debate concerning the best type of protein to take. Chicken, turkey, beef, pork, fish, eggs and dairy foods are high in protein, as are some nuts, seeds, beans, and lentils. Casein or whey are often used to supplement the diet with additional protein. Whey protein is the type of protein contained in many popular brands of protein supplements and is preferred by many bodybuilders because of its high Biological Value (BV) and quick absorption rates. Whey protein also has a bigger effect than casein on insulin levels, triggering about double the amount of insulin release.^[33] That effect is somewhat overcome by combining casein and whey. Bodybuilders are usually thought to require protein with a higher BV than that of soy, which is additionally avoided due to its claimed estrogenic properties. Still, some nutrition experts believe that soy, flax seeds and many other plants that contain the weak estrogen-like compounds or phytoestrogens, can be used beneficially, as phytoestrogens compete with estrogens for receptor sites in the male body and can block its actions. This can also include some inhibition of pituitary functions while stimulating the P450 system (the system that eliminates hormones, drugs and metabolic waste product from the body) in the liver to more actively process and excrete excess estrogen.^[34][35]Cortisol decreases amino acid uptake by muscle, and inhibits protein synthesis.^[36]

Contrary to certain rumors that animal-based protein is more suitable to trigger muscle growth than plant-based protein, a study by Mangano et al. (2017) could not provide any evidence for this. In contrast, if combined properly, plant-based protein can even have a higher biological quality. A combination of one part wheat protein (e.g. seitan) and two parts soy protein (e.g. tofu) has thus been favored by many bodybuilders. Some bodybuilders, such as Patrik Baboumian and Robert Cheeke, follow a strict vegan diet.^[37]

Meals[edit]

Bodybuilders often split their food intake into 5 to 7 meals of equal nutritional content and eat at regular intervals (e.g. every 2 to 3 hours). This approach serves two purposes: to limit overindulging in the cutting phase, and to allow for the consumption of large volumes of food during the bulking phase. Eating more frequently does not increase basal metabolic rate when compared to 3 meals a day.^{[citation needed]} While food does have a metabolic cost to digest, absorb, and store, called the thermic effect of food, it depends on the quantity and type of food, not how the food is spread across the meals of the day. Well-controlled studies using whole-body calorimetry and doubly labeled water have demonstrated that there is no metabolic advantage to eating more frequently.^[38][39][40]

Dietary supplements[edit]

The important role of nutrition in building muscle and losing fat means bodybuilders may consume a wide variety of dietary supplements.^[41] Various products are used in an attempt to augment muscle size, increase the rate of fat loss, improve joint health, increase natural testosterone production, enhance training performance and prevent potential nutrient deficiencies.

Performance-enhancing substances[edit]

Some bodybuilders use drugs such as anabolic steroids and precursor substances such as prohormones to increase muscle hypertrophy. Anabolic steroids cause hypertrophy of both types (I and II) of muscle fibers, likely caused by an increased synthesis of muscle proteins. They also provoke undesired side effects including hepatotoxicity, gynecomastia, acne, the early onset of male pattern baldness and a decline in the body's own testosterone production, which can cause testicular atrophy.^[42][43][44] Other performance-enhancing substances used by competitive bodybuilders include human growth hormone (HGH), which can cause acromegaly.

Muscle growth is more difficult to achieve in older adults than younger adults because of biological aging, which leads to many metabolic changes detrimental to muscle growth; for instance, by diminishing growth hormone and testosterone levels. Some recent clinical studies have shown that low-dose HGH treatment for adults with HGH deficiency changes the body composition by increasing muscle mass, decreasing fat mass, increasing bone density and muscle strength, improves cardiovascular parameters, and affects the quality of life without significant side effects.^{[45][46][unreliable medical source?][47]}

A recent trend in bodybuilding is to inject synthol^[48] into muscles to create larger bulges, or injecting PMMA into muscles to shape them. Use of PMMA to shape muscles is prohibited in the United States.^[49]

Rest[edit]

Although muscle stimulation occurs in the gym (or home gym) when lifting weights, muscle growth occurs afterward during rest periods. Without adequate rest and sleep (6 to 8 hours), muscles do not have an opportunity to recover and grow.^{[citation needed]} Additionally, many athletes find that a daytime nap further increases their body's ability to recover from training and build muscles. Some bodybuilders add a massage at the end of each workout to their routine as a method of recovering.^[50]

Overtraining[edit]

Overtraining occurs when a bodybuilder has trained to the point where his workload exceeds his recovery capacity. There are many reasons why overtraining occurs, including lack of adequate nutrition, lack of recovery time between workouts, insufficient sleep, and training at a high intensity for too long (a lack of splitting apart workouts). Training at a high intensity too frequently also stimulates the central nervous system (CNS) and can result in a hyperadrenergic state that interferes with sleep patterns.^[51] To avoid overtraining, intense frequent training must be met with at least an equal amount of purposeful recovery. Timely provision of carbohydrates, proteins, and various micronutrients such as vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, even nutritional supplements are acutely critical. A mental disorder informally called “bigorexia” (by analogy with anorexia) may be held accountable of some people overtraining. Sufferers feel as if they are never big enough or muscular enough, which forces them to overtrain in order to try and reach their goal physique.^[52]

An article by Muscle & Fitness magazine, 'Overtrain for Big Gains', claimed that overtraining for a brief period can be beneficial. Overtraining can be used advantageously, as when a bodybuilder is purposely overtrained for a brief period of time to super compensate during a regeneration phase. These are known as 'shock micro-cycles' and were a key training technique used by Soviet athletes.^[53]

Injecting oil into muscles [edit]

Site enhancement oil, often called 'santol' or 'synthol' (no relation to the Synthol mouthwash brand), refers to oils injected into muscles to increase the size or change the shape. Some bodybuilders, particularly at the professional level, inject their muscles with such mixtures to mimic the appearance of developed muscle where it may otherwise be disproportionate or lagging.^[54] This is known as 'fluffing'.^[55][56] Synthol is 85% oil, 7.5% lidocaine, and 7.5% alcohol.^[55] It is not restricted, and many brands are available on the Internet.^[57] The use of injected oil to enhance muscle appearance is common among bodybuilders,^[58][59] despite the fact that synthol can cause pulmonary embolisms, nerve damage, infections, sclerosing lipogranuloma,^[60] stroke,^[55] and the formation of oil-filled granulomas, cysts or ulcers in the muscle.^[59][61][62] Rare cases might require surgical intervention to avoid further damage to the muscle and/or to prevent loss of life.^[63]

Sesame oil is often used in such mixtures, which can cause allergic reactions such as vasculitis.^[64]

As the injected muscle is not actually well-developed, it might droop under gravity.^[57]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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