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Usain St Leo Bolt (/ˈjuːseɪn/^[12]; born 21 August 1986) is a Jamaican retired sprinter. He is a world record holder in the 100 metres, 200 metres and 4 × 100 metres relay. His reign as Olympic Games champion in all of these events spans three Olympics. Owing to his achievements and dominance in sprint competition, he is widely considered to be the greatest sprinter of all time.^{[13][14][15][16]}

A nine-time Olympic gold medalist, Bolt won the 100 m, 200 m and 4 × 100 m relay at three consecutive Olympic Games, although he lost the 2008 relay gold medal about nine years afterward due to a teammate's long-delayed doping disqualification. He gained worldwide fame for his double sprint victory in world record times at the 2008 Beijing Olympics, which made him the first person to hold both records since fully automatic time became mandatory. Bolt is the only sprinter to win Olympic 100 m and 200 m titles at three consecutive Olympics (2008, 2012 and 2016).

An eleven-time World Champion, he won consecutive World Championship 100 m, 200 m and 4 × 100 metres relay gold medals from 2009 to 2015, with the exception of a 100 m false start in 2011. He is the most successful athlete of the World Championships, was the first athlete to win four World Championship titles in the 200 m and is the joint-most successful in the 100 m with three titles.

Bolt improved upon his second 100 m world record of 9.69 with 9.58 seconds in 2009 – the biggest improvement since the start of electronic timing. He has twice broken the 200 metres world record, setting 19.30 in 2008 and 19.19 in 2009. He has helped Jamaica to three 4 × 100 metres relay world records, with the current record being 36.84 seconds set in 2012. Bolt's most successful event is the 200 m, with three Olympic and four World titles. The 2008 Olympics was his international debut over 100 m; he had earlier won numerous 200 m medals (including 2007 World Championship silver) and holds the world under-20 and world under-18 records for the event.

His achievements as a sprinter have earned him the media nickname 'Lightning Bolt', and his awards include the IAAF World Athlete of the Year, Track & Field Athlete of the Year, BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year (three times) and Laureus World Sportsman of the Year (four times). Bolt retired after the 2017 World Championships, when he finished third in his last solo 100 m race, opted out of the 200 m, and pulled up in the 4×100 m relay final.

Stating that it was his 'dream' to play professional association football, in August 2018 Bolt began training with Australian A-League club the Central Coast Mariners as a left-winger. On 12 October 2018, Bolt scored twice for the team in a friendly match. He left the club the following month, and in January 2019 announced that he would not be pursuing a career in football. In 2018, Bolt co-founded and launched Bolt Mobility in the U.S., an e-scooter which can reach speeds of up to 15mph. In May 2019, the company expanded its services to Europe, introducing the product first in Paris. ^[17]

• 1Early years
• 2Professional athletics career
• 4Personal life
• 8Statistics
• 12External links

Early years

Bolt was born on 21 August 1986 to parents Wellesley and Jennifer Bolt^[10] in Sherwood Content,^[18] a small town in Jamaica. He has a brother, Sadiki,^[19] and a sister, Sherine.^[20][21] His parents ran the local grocery store in the rural area, and Bolt spent his time playing cricket and football in the street with his brother,^[22] later saying, 'When I was young, I didn't really think about anything other than sports.'^[23] As a child, Bolt attended Waldensia Primary, where he began showing his sprint potential when he ran in his parish's annual national primary school meet.^[1] By the age of twelve, Bolt had become the school's fastest runner over the 100 metres distance.^[24]

Upon his entry to William Knibb Memorial High School, Bolt continued to focus on other sports, but his cricket coach noticed Bolt's speed on the pitch and urged him to try track and field events.^[25]Pablo McNeil, a former Olympic sprint athlete,^[26] and Dwayne Jarrett coached Bolt,^[27] encouraging him to focus his energy on improving his athletic abilities. The school had a history of success in athletics with past students, including sprinter Michael Green.^[1] Bolt won his first annual high school championships medal in 2001; he took the silver medal in the 200 metres with a time of 22.04 seconds.^[1] McNeil soon became his primary coach, and the two enjoyed a positive partnership, although McNeil was occasionally frustrated by Bolt's lack of dedication to his training and his penchant for practical jokes.^[26]

When Bolt was a boy, he attended Sherwood Content Seventh-day Adventist Church in Trelawny, Jamaica, with his mother. His mother didn't serve pork to him in accordance with Adventist beliefs.^[28]

Early competitions

Performing for Jamaica in his first Caribbean regional event, Bolt clocked a personal best time of 48.28 s in the 400 metres in the 2001 CARIFTA Games, winning a silver medal. The 200 m also yielded a silver, as Bolt finished in 21.81 s.^[29]

He made his first appearance on the world stage at the 2001 IAAF World Youth Championships in Debrecen, Hungary. Running in the 200 m event, he failed to qualify for the finals, but he still set a new personal best of 21.73 s.^[30] Bolt still did not take athletics or himself too seriously, however, and he took his mischievousness to new heights by hiding in the back of a van when he was supposed to be preparing for the 200 m finals at the CARIFTA Trials. He was detained by the police for his practical joke, and there was an outcry from the local community, which blamed coach McNeil for the incident.^[26] However, the controversy subsided, and both McNeil and Bolt went to the CARIFTA Games, where Bolt set championship records in the 200 m and 400 m with times of 21.12 s and 47.33 s, respectively.^[29] He continued to set records with 20.61 s and 47.12 s finishes at the Central American and Caribbean Junior Championships.^[31]

Bolt is one of only nine athletes (along with Valerie Adams, Veronica Campbell-Brown, Jacques Freitag, Yelena Isinbayeva, Jana Pittman, Dani Samuels, David Storl, and Kirani James) to win world championships at the youth, junior, and senior level of an athletic event. Former Prime Minister P. J. Patterson recognised Bolt's talent and arranged for him to move to Kingston, along with Jermaine Gonzales, so he could train with the Jamaica Amateur Athletic Association (JAAA) at the University of Technology, Jamaica.^[26]

Rise to prominence

The 2002 World Junior Championships were held in front of a home crowd in Kingston, Jamaica, and Bolt was given a chance to prove his credentials on a world stage. By the age of 15, he had grown to 1.96 metres (6 ft 5 in) tall, and he physically stood out among his peers.^[1] He won the 200 m in a time of 20.61 s,^[32] which was 0.03 s slower than his personal best of 20.58 s, which he set in the 1st round.^[33] Bolt's 200 m win made him the youngest world-junior gold medallist ever.^[34] The expectation from the home crowd had made him so nervous that he had put his shoes on the wrong feet. However, it turned out to be a revelatory experience for Bolt, as he vowed never again to let himself be affected by pre-race nerves.^[35] As a member of the Jamaican sprint relay team, he also took two silver medals and set national junior records in the 4×100 metres and 4×400 metres relay, running times of 39.15 s and 3:04.06 minutes respectively.^[36][37]

The rush of medals continued as he won four golds at the 2003 CARIFTA Games and was awarded the Austin Sealy Trophy for the most outstanding athlete of the games.^[38][39][40] He won another gold at the 2003 World Youth Championships. He set a new championship record in the 200 m with a time of 20.40 s, despite a 1.1 m/shead wind.^[41]Michael Johnson, the 200 m world-record holder, took note of Bolt's potential but worried that the young sprinter might be over-pressured, stating, 'It's all about what he does three, four, five years down the line'.^[42] Bolt had also impressed the athletics hierarchy, and he received the IAAF Rising Star Award for 2002.^[43]

Bolt competed in his final Jamaican High School Championships in 2003. He broke the 200 m and 400 m records with times of 20.25 s and 45.35 s, respectively. Bolt's runs were a significant improvement upon the previous records, beating the 200 m best by more than half a second and the 400 m record by almost a second.^[1] While Bolt improved upon the 200 m time three months later, setting the still-standing World youth best at the 2003 Pan American Junior Championships.^[44] The 400 m time remains No. 6 on the all-time youth list, surpassed only once since, by future Olympic champion Kirani James.^[45]

Bolt turned his main focus to the 200 m and equalled Roy Martin's world junior record of 20.13 s at the Pan-American Junior Championships.^[1][46] This performance attracted interest from the press, and his times in the 200 m and 400 m led to him being touted as a possible successor to Johnson. Indeed, at sixteen years old, Bolt had reached times that Johnson did not register until he was twenty, and Bolt's 200 m time was superior to Maurice Greene's season's best that year.^[42]

Bolt was growing more popular in his homeland. Howard Hamilton, who was given the task of Public Defender by the government, urged the JAAA to nurture him and prevent burnout, calling Bolt 'the most phenomenal sprinter ever produced by this island'.^[42] His popularity and the attractions of the capital city were beginning to be a burden to the young sprinter. Bolt was increasingly unfocused on his athletic career and preferred to eat fast food, play basketball, and party in Kingston's club scene. In the absence of a disciplined lifestyle, he became ever-more reliant on his natural ability to beat his competitors on the track.^[47]

As the reigning 200 m champion at both the World Youth and World Junior championships, Bolt hoped to take a clean sweep of the world 200 m championships in the Senior World Championships in Paris.^[1] He beat all comers at the 200 m in the World Championship trials. Bolt was pragmatic about his chances and noted that, even if he did not make the final, he would consider setting a personal best a success.^[42][48] However, he suffered a bout of conjunctivitis before the event, and it ruined his training schedule.^[1] Realising that he would not be in peak condition, the JAAA refused to let him participate in the finals, on the grounds that he was too young and inexperienced. Bolt was dismayed at missing out on the opportunity, but focused on getting himself in shape to gain a place on the Jamaican Olympic team instead.^[48] Even though he missed the World Championships, Bolt was awarded the IAAF Rising Star Award for the 2003 season on the strength of his junior record-equalling run.^[43][49]

Professional athletics career

2004–2007 Early career

Under the guidance of new coach Fitz Coleman, Bolt turned professional in 2004, beginning with the CARIFTA Games in Bermuda.^[1] He became the first junior sprinter to run the 200 m in under twenty seconds, taking the world junior record outright with a time of 19.93 s.^[1][34] For the second time in the role, he was awarded the Austin Sealy Trophy for themost outstanding athlete of the 2004 CARIFTA Games.^[38][39][50] A hamstring injury in May ruined Bolt's chances of competing in the 2004 World Junior Championships, but he was still chosen for the Jamaican Olympic squad.^[51] Bolt headed to the 2004 Athens Olympics with confidence and a new record on his side. However, he was hampered by a leg injury and was eliminated in the first round of the 200 metres with a disappointing time of 21.05 s.^[10][52] American colleges offered Bolt track scholarships to train in the United States while continuing to represent Jamaica on the international stage, but the teenager from Trelawny refused them all, stating that he was content to stay in his homeland of Jamaica.^[21] Bolt instead chose the surroundings of the University of Technology, Jamaica, as his professional training ground, staying with the university's track and weight room that had served him well in his amateur years.^[53]

The year 2005 signalled a fresh start for Bolt in the form of a new coach, Glen Mills, and a new attitude toward athletics. Mills recognised Bolt's potential and aimed to cease what he considered an unprofessional approach to the sport.^[52] Bolt began training with Mills in preparation for the upcoming athletics season, partnering with more seasoned sprinters such as Kim Collins and Dwain Chambers.^[54] The year began well, and in July, he knocked more than a third of a second off the 200 m CAC Championship record with a run of 20.03 s,^[55] then registered his 200 m season's best at London's Crystal Palace, running in 19.99 s.^[10]

Misfortune awaited Bolt at the next major event, the 2005 World Championships in Helsinki. Bolt felt that both his work ethic and athleticism had much improved since the 2004 Olympics, and he saw the World Championships as a way to live up to expectations, stating, 'I really want to make up for what happened in Athens. Hopefully, everything will fall into place'.^[56] Bolt qualified with runs under 21 s, but he suffered an injury in the final, finishing in last place with a time of 26.27 s.^[52][57] Injuries were preventing him from completing a full professional athletics season, and the eighteen-year-old Bolt still had not proven his mettle in the major world-athletics competitions.^[58] However, his appearance made him the youngest ever person to appear in a 200 m world final.^[59] Bolt was involved in a car accident in November, and although he suffered only minor facial lacerations, his training schedule was further upset.^[60][61] His manager, Norman Peart, made Bolt's training less intensive, and he had fully recuperated the following week.^[60] Bolt had continued to improve his performances, and he reached the world top-5 rankings in 2005 and 2006.^[1] Peart and Mills stated their intentions to push Bolt to do longer sprinting distances with the aim of making the 400 m event his primary event by 2007 or 2008. Bolt was less enthusiastic, and demanded that he feel comfortable in his sprinting.^[60][62] He suffered another hamstring injury in March 2006, forcing him to withdraw from the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, and he did not return to track events until May.^[63] After his recovery, Bolt was given new training exercises to improve flexibility, and the plans to move him up to the 400 m event were put on hold.^[58]

The 200 m remained Bolt's primary event when he returned to competition; he bested Justin Gatlin's meet record in Ostrava, Czech Republic. Bolt had aspired to run under twenty seconds to claim a season's best but, despite the fact that bad weather had impaired his run, he was happy to end the meeting with just the victory.^[64] However, a sub-20-second finish was soon his, as he set a new personal best of 19.88 s at the 2006 Athletissima Grand Prix in Lausanne, Switzerland, finishing behind Xavier Carter and Tyson Gay to earn a bronze medal.^[65] Bolt had focused his athletics aims, stating that 2006 was a year to gain experience. Also, he was more keen on competing over longer distances, setting his sights on running regularly in both 200 m and 400 m events within the next two years.^[64]

Bolt claimed his first major world medal two months later at the IAAF World Athletics Final in Stuttgart, Germany. He passed the finishing post with a time of 20.10 s, gaining a bronze medal in the process.^[10] The IAAF World Cup in Athens, Greece, yielded Bolt's first senior international silver medal.^[10]Wallace Spearmon from the United States won gold with a championship record time of 19.87 s, beating Bolt's respectable time of 19.96 s.^[66] Further 200 m honours on both the regional and international stages awaited Bolt in 2007. He yearned to run in the 100 metres but Mills was skeptical, believing that Bolt was better suited for middle distances. The coach cited the runner's difficulty in smoothly starting out of the blocks and poor habits such as looking back at opponents in sprints. Mills told Bolt that he could run the shorter distance if he broke the 200 m national record.^[52] In the Jamaican Championships, he ran 19.75 s in the 200 m, breaking the 36-year-old Jamaican record held by Don Quarrie by 0.11 s.^[1][21]

Mills complied with Bolt's demand to run in the 100 m, and he was entered to run the event at the 23rd Vardinoyiannia meeting in Rethymno, Crete. In his debut tournament run, he set a personal best of 10.03 s, winning the gold medal and feeding his enthusiasm for the event.^[21][67]

He built on this achievement at the 2007 World Championships in Osaka, Japan, winning a silver medal.^[10] Bolt recorded 19.91 s with a headwind of 0.8 m/s. The race was won by Tyson Gay in 19.76 s, a new championship record.^[68]

Bolt was a member of the silver medal relay team with Asafa Powell, Marvin Anderson, and Nesta Carter in the 4×100 metres relay. Jamaica set a national record of 37.89 s.^[69] Bolt did not win any gold medals at the major tournaments in 2007, but Mills felt that Bolt's technique was much improved, pinpointing improvements in Bolt's balance at the turns over 200 m and an increase in his stride frequency, giving him more driving power on the track.^[52]

World-record breaker

The silver medals from the 2007 Osaka World Championships boosted Bolt's desire to sprint, and he took a more serious, more mature stance towards his career.^[25] Bolt continued to develop in the 100 m, and he decided to compete in the event at the Jamaica Invitational in Kingston. On 3 May 2008, Bolt ran a time of 9.76 s, with a 1.8 m/stail wind, improving his personal best from 10.03 s.^[70] This was the second-fastest legal performance in the history of the event, second only to compatriot Asafa Powell's 9.74 s record set the previous year in Rieti, Italy.^[71] Rival Tyson Gay lauded the performance, especially praising Bolt's form and technique.^[72] Michael Johnson observed the race and said that he was shocked at how quickly Bolt had improved over the 100 m distance.^[73] The Jamaican surprised even himself with the time, but coach Glen Mills remained confident that there was more to come.^[72]

On 31 May 2008, Bolt set a new 100 m world record at the Reebok Grand Prix in the Icahn Stadium in New York City. He ran 9.72s with a tail wind of 1.7 m/s.^[74] This race was Bolt's fifth senior 100 m.^[75] Gay again finished second and said of Bolt: 'It looked like his knees were going past my face.'^[21] Commentators noted that Bolt appeared to have gained a psychological advantage over fellow Olympic contender Gay.^[52]

In June 2008, Bolt responded to claims that he was a lazy athlete, saying that the comments were unjustified, and he trained hard to achieve his potential. However, he surmised that such comments stemmed from his lack of enthusiasm for the 400 metres event; he chose not to make an effort to train for that particular distance.^[76] Turning his efforts to the 200 m, Bolt proved that he could excel in two events—first setting the world-leading time in Ostrava, then breaking the national record for the second time with a 19.67 s finish in Athens, Greece.^[77][78] Although Mills still preferred that Bolt focus on the longer distances, the acceptance of Bolt's demand to run in the 100 m worked for both sprinter and trainer. Bolt was more focused in practice, and a training schedule to boost his top speed and his stamina, in preparation for the Olympics, had improved both his 100 m and 200 m times.^[21][79][80]

2008 Summer Olympics

Bolt announced that he would double-up with the 100 metres and 200 metres events at the Beijing Summer Olympics. As the new 100 m world-record holder, he was the favourite to win both races.^[81][82]Michael Johnson, the 200 m and 400 m record holder, personally backed the sprinter, saying that he did not believe that a lack of experience would work against him.^[83] Bolt qualified for the 100 m final with times of 9.92 s and 9.85 s in the quarter-finals and semi-finals, respectively.^[84][85][86]

—Tom Hammond, NBC Sports, with the call for the men's 100 metres final at the 2008 Summer Olympics.

In the Olympic 100 m final, Bolt broke new ground, winning in 9.69 s (unofficially 9.683 s) with a reaction time of 0.165 s.^[87] This was an improvement upon his own world record, and he was well ahead of second-place finisher Richard Thompson, who finished in 9.89 s.^[88] Not only was the record set without a favourable wind (+0.0 m/s), but he also visibly slowed down to celebrate before he finished and his shoelace was untied.^[89][90][91] Bolt's coach reported that, based upon the speed of Bolt's opening 60 m, he could have finished with a time of 9.52 s.^[92] After scientific analysis of Bolt's run by the Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics at the University of Oslo, Hans Eriksen and his colleagues also predicted a sub 9.60 s time. Considering factors such as Bolt's position, acceleration and velocity in comparison with second-place-finisher Thompson, the team estimated that Bolt could have finished in 9.55±0.04 s had he not slowed to celebrate before the finishing line.^[93][94]

Bolt stated that setting a world record was not a priority for him, and that his goal was just to win the gold medal, Jamaica's first of the 2008 Games.^[95] Olympic medallist Kriss Akabusi construed Bolt's chest slapping before the finish line as showboating, noting that the actions cost Bolt an even faster record time.^[96]IOC president Jacques Rogge also condemned the Jamaican's actions as disrespectful.^[97][98] Bolt denied that this was the purpose of his celebration by saying, 'I wasn't bragging. When I saw I wasn't covered, I was just happy'.^[99]Lamine Diack, president of the IAAF, supported Bolt and said that his celebration was appropriate given the circumstances of his victory. Jamaican government minister Edmund Bartlett also defended Bolt's actions, stating, 'We have to see it in the glory of their moment and give it to them. We have to allow the personality of youth to express itself'.^[100]

Bolt then focused on attaining a gold medal in the 200 m event, aiming to emulate Carl Lewis' double win in the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics.^[101] Michael Johnson felt that Bolt would easily win gold but believed that his own world record of 19.32 s set at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta would remain intact at the Olympics.^[102] Bolt eased through the first and second rounds of the 200 m, jogging towards the end of his run both times.^[103] He won his semi-final and progressed to the final as the favourite to win.^[104] Retired Jamaican sprinter Don Quarrie praised Bolt, saying he was confident that Johnson's record could be beaten.^[43] The following day, at the final, he won Jamaica's fourth gold of the Games, setting a new world and Olympic record of 19.30 s.^[105] Johnson's record fell despite the fact that Bolt was impeded by a 0.9 m/s headwind. The feat made him the first sprinter since Quarrie to hold both 100 m and 200 m world records simultaneously and the first to hold both records since the introduction of electronic timing.^[105][106] Furthermore, Bolt became the first sprinter to break both records at the same Olympics.^[107] Unlike in the 100 m final, Bolt sprinted hard all the way to the finishing line in the 200 m race, even dipping his chest to improve his time.^[108] Following the race, 'Happy Birthday' was played over the stadium's sound system as his 22nd birthday would begin at midnight.^[108]

Two days later, Bolt ran as the third leg in the Jamaican 4 × 100 metres relay team, increasing his gold medal total to three.^[109] Along with teammates Nesta Carter, Michael Frater, and Asafa Powell, Bolt broke another world and Olympic record, their 37.10 s finish breaking the previous record by three-tenths of a second.^[110] Powell, who anchored the team to the finishing line, lamented the loss of his 100m record to Bolt but showed no animosity towards his Jamaican rival, stating that he was delighted to help him set his third world record.^[111] In January 2017 the Jamaican relay teammates were stripped of their gold medals when a blood sample taken from Carter after the race was retested and found positive for a banned substance.^[112] Following his victories, Bolt donated US$50,000 to the children of Sichuan province in China to help those harmed by the 2008 Sichuan earthquake.^[113]

Bolt's record-setting runs caused commentators not only to praise his achievements but to speculate about his potential to become one of the most successful sprinters in history.^[23][114] Critics hailed his Olympic success as a new beginning for a sport that had long suffered through high-profile drug scandals.^[75][115] The previous six years had seen the BALCO scandal, Tim Montgomery and Justin Gatlin stripped of their 100 m world records, and Marion Jones returning three Olympic gold medals.^[116] All three sprinters were disqualified from athletics after drugs tests detected banned substances in their systems.^[117][118] Bolt's record-breaking performances caused suspicion among some commentators, including Victor Conte, and the lack of an independent Caribbean anti-doping federation raised more concerns.^[119][120] The accusations of drug use were vehemently rejected by Glen Mills (Bolt's coach) and Herb Elliott (the Jamaican athletics team doctor). Elliott, a member of the IAAF anti-doping commission, urged those concerned about the issue to 'come down and see our programme, come down and see our testing, we have nothing to hide'.^[121] Mills had been equally ardent that Bolt was a clean athlete, declaring to the Jamaica Gleaner: 'We will test any time, any day, any part of the body...[he] doesn't even like to take vitamins'.^[122] Bolt stated that he had been tested four times prior to the Olympics, and all had tested negative for banned substances. He also welcomed anti-doping authorities to test him to prove that he was clean, stating, 'We work hard and we perform well and we know we're clean'.^[123]

I was slowing down long before the finish and wasn't tired at all. I could have gone back to the start and done it all over again.

After the 2008 Olympics

At the end of the 2008 athletics season, Bolt competed in the ÅF Golden League, beginning in Weltklasse Zürich. Despite having the slowest start among his competitors in the 100 m race, he still crossed the finishing line in 9.83 s.^[125] Even though the time was slower than both his newly set world record and Asafa Powell's track record, it was still among the top-fifteen 100 m finishes by any sprinter to that date.^[89] Bolt admitted that he was not running at full strength because he was suffering from a cold, but he concentrated on winning the race and finishing the season in good health.^[125] At the Super Grand Prix final in Lausanne, Bolt ran his second-fastest 200 m with a time of 19.63 s, equalling Xavier Carter's track record.^[126] However, it was the 100 m final, featuring Asafa Powell, that drew the most interest. Powell had moved closer to Bolt's world record after setting a new personal best of 9.72 s, reaffirming his status as Bolt's main contender.^[127] Bolt's final event of the season came three days later at the Golden League final in Brussels. This was the first 100 m race featuring both Bolt and Powell since the final in the Olympics. Both Jamaicans broke the track record, but Bolt came out on top with a time of 9.77 s, beating Powell by 0.06 s. Victory, however, did not come as smoothly as it had in Beijing. Bolt made the slowest start of the nine competitors and had to recover ground in cold conditions and against a 0.9 m/s headwind.^[128] Yet the results confirmed Jamaican dominance in the 100 m, with nine of the ten-fastest legal times in history being recorded by either Bolt or Powell.^[89]

On his return to Jamaica, Bolt was honoured in a homecoming celebration and received an Order of Distinction in recognition of his achievements at the Olympics.^[129] Additionally, Bolt was selected as the IAAF Male Athlete of the year, won a Special Olympic Award for his performances, and was named Laureus World Sportsman of the Year.^[130][131] Bolt turned his attention to future events, suggesting that he could aim to break the 400 metres world record in 2010 as no major championships were scheduled that year.^[132]

2009 Berlin World Championships

Bolt started the season competing in the 400 metres in order to improve his speed, winning two races and registering 45.54 s in Kingston,^[133] and windy conditions gave him his first sub-10 seconds finish of the season in the 100 m in March.^[134] In late April Bolt, suffered minor leg injuries in a car crash. However, he quickly recovered following minor surgery and (after cancelling a track meet in Jamaica) he stated that he was fit to compete in the 150 metres street race at the Manchester Great City Games.^[135] Bolt won the race in 14.35 s, the fastest time ever recorded for 150 m.^[8] Despite not being at full fitness, he took the 100 and 200 m titles at the Jamaican national championships, with runs of 9.86 s and 20.25 s respectively.^[136][137] This meant he had qualified for both events at the 2009 World Championships. Rival Tyson Gay suggested that Bolt's 100 m record was within his grasp, but Bolt dismissed the claim and instead noted that he was more interested in Asafa Powell's return from injury.^[138] Bolt defied unfavourable conditions at the Athletissima meet in July, running 19.59 seconds into a 0.9 m/s headwind and rain, to record the fourth fastest time ever over 200 m,^[139] one hundredth off Gay's best time.^[140]

The 2009 World Championships were held during August at the Olympic Stadium in Berlin, which was coincidentally the same month and venue where Jesse Owens had achieved world-wide fame 73 years earlier. Bolt eased through the 100-m heats, clocking the fastest ever pre-final performance of 9.89 seconds.^[141] The final was the first time that Bolt and Gay had met during the season, and Bolt set a new world record—which stands to this day—with a time of 9.58s to win his first World Championship gold medal. Bolt took more than a tenth of a second off his previous best mark, and this was the largest-ever margin of improvement in the 100-m world record since the beginning of electronic timing.^[7] Gay finished with a time of 9.71 s, 0.02 s off Bolt's 9.69 s world-record run in Beijing.^[142][143]

Although Gay withdrew from the second race of the competition, Bolt once again produced world record-breaking time in the 200 metres final. He broke his own record by 0.11 seconds, finishing with a time of 19.19 seconds.^[144] He won the 200 m race by the largest margin in World Championships history, even though the race had three other athletes running under 19.90 seconds, the greatest number ever in the event.^[9][145] Bolt's pace impressed even the more experienced of his competitors; third-placed Wallace Spearmon complimented his speed,^[146] and the Olympic champion in Athens 2004Shawn Crawford said 'Just coming out there...I felt like I was in a video game, that guy was moving – fast'.^[147] Bolt pointed out that an important factor in his performance at the World Championships was his improved start to the races: his reaction times in the 100 m (0.146)^[148] and 200 m (0.133)^[149] were significantly faster than those he had produced in his world record runs at the Beijing Olympics.^[150][151] However, he, together with other members of Jamaican 4×100 m relay team, fell short of their own world record of 37.10 s set at 2008 Summer Olympics by timing 37.31 s, which is, however, a championship record and the second fastest time in history at that date.^[152]

On the last day of the Berlin Championships, the Governing Mayor of Berlin, Klaus Wowereit, presented Bolt with a 12-foot high section of the Berlin Wall in a small ceremony, saying Bolt had shown that 'one can tear down walls that had been considered as insurmountable.'^[153] The nearly three-ton segment was delivered to the Jamaica Military Museum in Kingston.^[154]

Several days after Bolt broke the world records in 100 and 200 metres events, Mike Powell, the world record holder in long jump (8.95 metres set in 1991) argued that Bolt could become the first man to jump over 9 metres, the long jump event being 'a perfect fit for his speed and height'.^[155] At the end of the season, he was selected as the IAAF World Athlete of the Year for the second year running.^[156]

2010 Diamond League and broken streak

Early on in the 2010 outdoor season, Bolt ran 19.56 seconds in the 200 m in Kingston, Jamaica for the fourth-fastest run of all-time, although he stated that he had no record breaking ambitions for the forthcoming season.^[157] He took to the international circuit May with wins in East Asia at the Colorful Daegu Pre-Championships Meeting and then a comfortable win in his 2010 IAAF Diamond League debut at the Shanghai Golden Grand Prix.^[158][159] Bolt made an attempt to break Michael Johnson's best time over the rarely competed 300 metres event at the Golden Spike meeting in Ostrava. He failed to match Johnson's ten-year-old record of 30.85 and suffered a setback in that his 30.97-second run in wet weather had left him with an Achilles tendon problem.^[160][161]

After his return from injury a month later, Bolt asserted himself with a 100 m win at the Athletissima meeting in Lausanne (9.82 seconds) and a victory over Asafa Powell at Meeting Areva in Paris (9.84 seconds).^[162][163] Despite this run of form, he suffered only the second loss of his career in a 100 m final at the DN Galan. Tyson Gay soundly defeated him with a run of 9.84 to Bolt's 9.97 seconds, and the Jamaican reflected that he had slacked off in training early in the season while Gay had been better prepared and in a better condition.^[164] This marked Bolt's first loss to Gay in the 100 m, which coincidentally occurred in the same stadium where Powell had beaten Bolt for the first time two years earlier.^[165]

2011 World Championships

Bolt went undefeated over 100 m and 200 m in the 2011 season. He began with wins in Rome and Ostrava in May.^[166] He ran his first 200 m in over a year in Oslo that June and his time of 19.86 seconds was a world-leading one. Two further 200 m wins came in Paris and Stockholm the following month, as did a 100 m in Monaco, though he was a tenth of a second slower than compatriot Asafa Powell before the world championships.^[167]

Considered the favourite to win in the 100 metres at the 2011 World Championships in Daegu, Bolt was eliminated from the final, breaking 'ridiculously early' according to the starter in an interview for BBC Sport, and receiving a false start.^[168] This proved to be the highest profile disqualification for a false start since the IAAF changed the rules that previously allowed one false start per race. The disqualification caused some to question the new rule, with former world champion Kim Collins saying it was 'a sad night for athletics'. Usain Bolt's countryman, Yohan Blake, won in a comparatively slow 9.92 seconds.^[169]

In the World Championships 200 m, Bolt cruised through to the final which he won in a time of 19.40.^[170] Though this was short of his world record times of the two previous major tournaments, it was the fourth fastest run ever at that point, after his own records and Michael Johnson's former record, and left him three tenths of a second ahead of runner-up Walter Dix. This achievement made Bolt one of only two men to win consecutive 200 m world titles, alongside Calvin Smith.^[171] Bolt closed the championships with another gold with Jamaica in the 4 × 100 metres relay. Nesta Carter and Michael Frater joined world champions Bolt and Blake to set a world record time of 37.04.^[172]

Following the World Championships, Bolt ran 9.85 seconds for the 100 m to win in Zagreb before setting the year's best time of 9.76 seconds at the Memorial Van Damme. This run was overshadowed by Jamaican rival Blake's unexpected run of 19.26 seconds in the 200 m at the same meeting, which brought him within seven hundredths of Bolt's world record.^[173] Although Bolt failed to win the Diamond Race in a specific event, he was not beaten on the 2011 IAAF Diamond League circuit, taking three wins in each of his specialities that year.^{[166][166][174]}

2012 Summer Olympics

Bolt began the 2012 season with a leading 100 m time of 9.82 seconds in May.^[175] He defeated Asafa Powell with runs of 9.76 seconds in Rome and 9.79 in Oslo.^[176] At the Jamaican Athletics Championships, he lost to Yohan Blake, first in the 200 m and then in the 100 m, with his younger rival setting leading times for the year.^[177][178]

However, at the 2012 London Olympics, he won the 100 metres gold medal with a time of 9.63 seconds, improving upon his own Olympic record and duplicating his gold medal from the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Blake was the silver medallist with a time of 9.75 seconds.^[179][180] Following the race, seventh-place finisher Richard Thompson of Trinidad and Tobago declared 'There's no doubt he's the greatest sprinter of all time', while USA Today referred to Bolt as a Jamaican 'national hero', noting that his victory came just hours before Jamaica was to celebrate the 50th anniversary of its independence from the United Kingdom.^[181] With his 2012 win, Bolt became the first man to successfully defend an Olympic sprint title since Carl Lewis in 1988.^[182]

I'm now a legend. I'm also the greatest athlete to live.

Bolt followed this up with a successful defence of his Olympic 200 metres title with a time of 19.32 seconds, followed by Blake at 19.44 and Warren Weir at 19.84 to complete a Jamaican podium sweep. With this, Bolt became the first man in history to defend both the 100 m and 200 m Olympic sprint titles.^[184][185] He was dramatic in victory: in the final metres of the 200 m race, Bolt placed his fingers on his lips, gesturing to silence his critics, and after crossing the line he completed five push-ups – one for each of his Olympic gold medals.^{[183][186][187]}

On the final day of the 2012 Olympic athletics, Bolt participated in Jamaica's gold medal-winning 4×100 metres relay team along with Nesta Carter, Michael Frater and Blake. With a time of 36.84 seconds, they knocked two tenths of a second from their previous world record from 2011.^[188] He celebrated by imitating the 'Mobot' celebration of Mo Farah, who had claimed a long-distance track double for the host nation.^[189]

International Olympic Committee (IOC) President Jacques Rogge initially stated that Bolt was not yet a 'legend' and would not deserve such acclaim until the end of his career,^[190] but later called him the best sprinter of all time.^[191] Following the Olympics he was confirmed as the highest earning track and field athlete in history.^[192]

Bolt ended his season with wins on the 2012 IAAF Diamond League circuit; he had 200 m wins of 19.58 and 19.66 in Lausanne and Zürich before closing with a 100 m of 9.86 in Brussels.^[193][194] The latter run brought him his first Diamond League title in the 100 m.^[195]

2013 World Championships

Bolt failed to record below 10 seconds early season and had his first major 100 m race of 2013 at the Golden Gala in June. He was served an unexpected defeat by Justin Gatlin, with the American winning 9.94 to Bolt's 9.95. Bolt denied the loss was due to a hamstring issue he had early that year and Gatlin responded: 'I don't know how many people have beaten Bolt but it's an honour'.^[196][197] With Yohan Blake injured, Bolt won the Jamaican 100 m title ahead of Kemar Bailey-Cole and skipped the 200 m, which was won by Warren Weir.^[198][199] Prior to the 2013 World Championships in Athletics, Bolt set world leading times in the sprints, with 9.85 for the 100 m at the London Anniversary Games and 19.73 for the 200 m in Paris.^[200][201]

Bolt regained the title as world's fastest man by winning the World Championships 100 metres in Moscow. In wet conditions, he edged Gatlin by eight hundredths of a second with 9.77, which was the fastest run that year.^[202][203] Gatlin was the sole non-Jamaican in the top five, with Nesta Carter, Nickel Ashmeade and Bailey-Cole finishing next.^[204]

Bolt was less challenged in the 200 m final. His closest rival was Jamaican champion Warren Weir but Bolt ran a time of 19.66 to finish over a tenth of a second clear.^[205] This performance made Bolt the first man in the history of the 200 metres at the World Championships in Athletics to win three gold medals over the distance.^[206]

Bolt won a third consecutive world relay gold medal in the 4 × 100 metres relay final, which made him the most successful athlete in the 30-year history of the world championships.^[207] The Jamaican team, featuring four of the top five from the 100 m final were comfortable winners with Bolt reaching the finish line on his anchor leg three tenths of a second ahead of the American team anchored by Gatlin.^[208] Bolt's performances were matched on the women's side by Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce, meaning Jamaica took a complete sweep of the sprint medals at the 2013 World Championships.^[207]

After the championships, Bolt took 100 m wins on the 2013 IAAF Diamond League circuit in Zürich and Brussels. He remained unbeaten in the 200 m and his only loss that year was to Gatlin over 100 m in Rome.^[209] For the fifth time in six years, Bolt was named IAAF World Male Athlete of the Year.^[210]

2014: Injury and Commonwealth Games

An injury to Bolt's hamstring in March 2014 caused him to miss nine weeks of training. Having recovered from surgery, Bolt competed in the 4 × 100 metres relay of the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow. Not in peak form Bolt said that he was attending the Games for the fans and to show his progress since the injury.^[211] Bolt and his teammates won the 4 × 100 metres relay in 37.58 seconds – a Commonwealth Games record.^[212] This was the foremost competition of the year for Bolt, given no Olympics or World Championships in 2014.

In August 2014, Bolt set the indoor 100 m world record in Warsaw with a time of 9.98 seconds.^[213] This was his sole individual outing of the 2014 season.^[214] Soon afterwards he ended his season early in order to be fit for the 2015 season.^[215] In Bolt's absence, Justin Gatlin had dominated the sprints, holding the year's fastest times, including seven of the top ten 100 m runs that season.^[214][216]

2015 Beijing World Championships

At the start of 2015, he announced that he intended to make the 2017 World Championships in Athletics his last major competition before retirement.^[217]

Upon his return from injury, Bolt appeared a reduced figure at the start of the 2015 season. He ran only two 100 m and three 200 m before the major championship. He opened with 10.12 seconds for the 100 m and 20.20 for the 200 m. He won the 200 m in New York and Ostrava, but his season's best time of 20.13 seconds ranked him 20th in the world going into the championships.^[218] Two 100 m runs of 9.87 in July in London showed better form, but in comparison, Justin Gatlin was easily the top ranked sprinter – the American had times of 9.74 and 19.57 seconds, and had already run under 9.8 seconds on four occasions that season.^[218][219] Bolt entered the World Championships to defend his sprint titles but was not the comfortable favourite he had been since 2008.^[220][221]

In the World Championships 100 m, Bolt won his semi-final in 9.96, which lagged Gatlin's semi-final win in 9.77 seconds.^[219] However, Gatlin did not match that form in the final while Bolt improved through the rounds. In a narrow victory, Bolt leaned at the line to beat Gatlin 9.79 to 9.80 seconds. Bolt joined Carl Lewis and Maurice Greene on a record three 100 m world titles.^{[222][223][224]}

A similar outcome followed in the 200 m World finals. In the semi-final, Gatlin outpaced Bolt – the Jamaican at 19.95 and the American at 19.87. Despite such slow times prior to Beijing, Bolt delivered in the final with his fifth fastest run ever for the 200 m at 19.55 seconds. Gatlin failed to reach his early season form and finished almost two-tenths of a second behind Bolt. Bolt's four consecutive wins over 200 m at the World Championships was unprecedented and established him clearly as the best ever sprinter at the competition.^[225]

There was also a fourth straight win in the 4 × 100 metres relay with the Jamaica team (Nesta Carter, Asafa Powell, Nickel Ashmeade, Usain Bolt). The Americans initially had a lead, but a poor baton exchange saw them disqualified and Jamaica defend their title in 37.36 seconds – well clear of the Chinese team who took a surprise silver for the host nation.^[226]

Conscious of his injuries at the start of the season, he did not compete after the World Championships, skipping the 2015 IAAF Diamond League final.^[227]

2016 Rio Olympics

Bolt competed sparingly in the 200 m before the Olympics, with a run of 19.89 seconds to win at the London Grand Prix being his sole run of note over that distance. He had four races over 100 m, though only one was in Europe, and his best of 9.88 seconds in Kingston placed him fourth on the world seasonal rankings. As in the previous season, Gatlin appeared to be in better form, having seasonal bests of 9.80 and 19.75 seconds to rank first and second in the sprints.^[228][229]Doping in athletics was a prime topic before the 2016 Rio Olympics, given the banning of the Russian track and field team for state doping, and Bolt commented that he had no problem with doping controls: 'I have no issue with being drug-tested...I remember in Beijing every other day they were drug-testing us'. He also highlighted his dislike of rival Tyson Gay's reduced ban for cooperation, given their close rivalry since the start of Bolt's career, saying 'it really bothered me – really, really bothered me'.^[230]

I want to be among greats Muhammad Ali and Pelé.

At the 2016 Rio Olympics, Bolt won the 100 metres gold medal with a time of 9.81 seconds.^[232] With this win, Bolt became the first athlete to win the event three times at the Olympic Games.^[232] Bolt followed up his 100 m win with a gold medal in the 200 m, which also makes him the first athlete to win the 200 m three times at the Olympic Games.^[233] Bolt ran the anchor leg for the finals of the 4 × 100 m relay and secured his third consecutive and last Olympic gold medal in the event.^[234] With that win, Bolt obtained the 'triple-triple', three sprinting gold medals in three consecutive Olympics, and finished his Olympic career with a 100% win record in finals.^[234] However, in January 2017, Bolt was stripped of the 4 × 100 relay gold from the Beijing Games in 2008 because his teammate Nesta Carter was found guilty of a doping violation.^[235]

2017 season

Bolt took a financial stake in a new Australia-based track and field meeting series – Nitro Athletics. He performed at the inaugural meet in February 2017 and led his team (Bolt All-Stars) to victory. The competition featured variations on traditional track and field events. He committed himself to three further editions.^[236][237]

In 2017, the Jamaican team was stripped of the 2008 Olympics 4×100 metre title due to Nesta Carter's disqualification for doping offences. Bolt, who never failed a dope test, was quoted by the BBC saying that the prospect of having to return the gold was 'heartbreaking'.^[238] The banned substance in Carter's test was identified as methylhexanamine, a nasal decongestant sometimes used in dietary supplements.

At the 2017 World Athletics Championships, Bolt won his heat uncomfortably after a slow start in 10.07, in his semi-final he improved to 9.98 but was beaten by Christian Coleman by 0.01. That race broke Bolt's 4 year winning streak in the 100 m. In his final individual race, in the final, Bolt won the Bronze medal in 9.95, 0.01 behind Silver medalist Coleman and 0.03 behind World Champion Justin Gatlin. It was the first time Bolt had been beaten at a major championship since the 4×100 m relay of the 2007 World Athletics Championships. Also at the 2017 World Athletics Championships, Bolt participated as the anchor runner for Jamaica's 4×100-metre relay team in both the heats and the final. Jamaica won their heat comfortably in 37.95 seconds. In what was intended to be his final race, Bolt pulled up in agony with 50 metres to go and collapsed to the track after what was later confirmed to be another hamstring injury. He refused a wheelchair and crossed the finish line one last time with the assistance of his teammates Omar McLeod, Julian Forte, and Yohan Blake.^[239]

Football career

In an interview with Decca Aitkenhead of The Guardian in November 2016, Bolt said he wished to play as a professional footballer after retiring from athletics. He reiterated his desire to play for Manchester United if given a chance and added, 'For me, if I could get to play for Manchester United, that would be like a dream come true. Yes, that would be epic'.^[240]

In 2018, after training with Norwegian side Strømsgodset,^[241] Bolt played for the club as a forward in a friendly match against the Norway national under-19 team. He wore the number '9.58' in allusion to his 100 m world record.^[242] Bolt wore the same number whilst captaining the World XI during Soccer Aid 2018 at Old Trafford.^[243]

On 21 August 2018, on his 32nd birthday, Bolt started training with Australian club Central Coast Mariners of the A-League.^[244] He made his friendly debut for the club as a substitute on 31 August 2018 against a Central Coast Select team, made up of players playing in the local area.^[245] On 12 October, he started in a friendly against amateur club Macarthur South West United and scored two goals, both in the second half, with his goal celebration featuring his signature “To Di World” pose.^[246][247]

Bolt was offered a two-year contract from Maltese club Valletta, which he turned down on 18 October 2018.^[248] On 21 October 2018, Bolt was offered a contract by the Mariners.^[249] The Australian FA was helping the Mariners to fund it.^[250] Later that month, Perth Glory forward Andy Keogh was critical of Bolt's ability, stating his first touch is 'like a trampoline'. He added Bolt has 'shown a bit of potential but it's a little bit of a kick in the teeth to the professionals that are in the league.'^[251]

Bolt left the Mariners in early November 2018 after 8 weeks with the club.^[252] In January 2019, Bolt announced that he would not be pursuing a career in football, saying his 'sports life is over'.^[253]

Personal life

Bolt expresses a love for dancing and his character is frequently described as laid-back and relaxed.^[25][254] His Jamaican track and field idols include Herb McKenley and former Jamaican 100 m and 200 m world record holder, Don Quarrie. Michael Johnson, the former 200 m world and Olympic record holder, is also held in high esteem by Bolt.^[25]

Bolt has the nickname 'Lightning Bolt' due to his name and speed.^[1] He is Catholic and known for making the sign of the cross before racing competitively, and he wears a Miraculous Medal during his races. His middle name is St. Leo.^[255]

In 2010, Bolt also revealed his fondness of music, when he played a reggae DJ set to a crowd in Paris.^[256] He is also an avid fan of the Call of Duty video game series, saying, 'I stay up late [playing the game online], I can't help it.'^[257]

What Does A Jamaican Marriage License Look Like

In his autobiography, Bolt reveals that he has suffered from scoliosis, a condition that has curved his spine to the right and has made his right leg half an inch shorter than his left.^[258]

He popularised the 'lightning bolt' pose, also known as 'to di world' or 'bolting', which he used both before races and in celebration. The pose consists of extending a slightly raised left arm to the side and the right arm folded across the chest, with both hands have the thumb and index finger outstretched. His performance of the pose during his Olympic and World Championship victories led to widespread copying of the move, from American President Barack Obama to small children. It has been suggested that the pose comes from Jamaican dancehall moves of the period,^[259][260] though Olympic sprint champion Bernard Williams also had performed similar celebration moves earlier that decade.^[261]

Other sports

Cricket was the first sport to interest Bolt, and he said if he were not a sprinter, he would be a fast bowler instead.^[25] As a child, he was a supporter of the Pakistani cricket team and admired the bowling of Waqar Younis.^[262] He is also a fan of Indian batsman Sachin Tendulkar, West Indian opener Chris Gayle,^[263] and Australian opener Matthew Hayden.^[264] During a charity cricket match, Bolt clean-bowled Gayle who was complimentary of Bolt's pace and swing.^[265] Bolt also struck a six off Gayle's bowling. Another bowler complimentary of Bolt's pace was former West Indies fast-bowling great Curtly Ambrose.^[266]

After talking with Australian cricketer Shane Warne, Bolt suggested that if he were able to get time off he would be interested in playing in the cricket Big Bash League. Melbourne Stars chief executive Clint Cooper said there were free spots on his team should be available. Bolt stated that he enjoyed the Twenty20 version of the game, admiring the aggressive and constant nature of the batting. On his own ability, he said 'I don't know how good I am. I will probably have to get a lot of practice in.'^[267][268]

Bolt is also a fan of Premier League football team Manchester United.^[269] He has declared he is a fan of Dutch striker Ruud van Nistelrooy.^[270] Bolt was a special guest of Manchester United at the 2011 UEFA Champions League Final in London, where he stated that he would like to play for them after his retirement.^[271]

In 2013, Bolt played basketball in the NBA All-Star Weekend Celebrity Game. He scored two points from a slam dunk but acknowledged his other basketball skills were lacking.^[272]

Biographical film

A biographical film based on the athletic life of Bolt to win three Olympic gold medals, titled I Am Bolt, was released on 28 November 2016 in United Kingdom. The film was directed by Benjamin Turner and Gabe Turner.^[273][274]

Sponsorships and advertising work

After winning the 200 m title in the 2002 World Junior Championships in Kingston, Bolt signed a sponsorship deal with Puma.^[275] To promote Bolt's chase for Olympic glory in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China, Puma released a series of videos including Bolt's then-world-record-setting run in Icahn Stadium and his Olympic preparations.^[276] After his world record breaking run in New York City, which was preceded by a lightning storm,^[277] the press frequently made puns on the Jamaican's name, nicknaming him 'Lightning Bolt' and the 'Bolt from the blue'.^{[278][279][280]} During the 2008 Beijing 100 m final, Bolt wore golden Puma Complete Theseus spikes that had 'Beijing 100 m Gold' emblazoned across them.^[281] Writing of Bolt's performance at the Olympics, The Associated Press said:

Almost single-handedly, Bolt has helped track transform itself from a dying sport to one with a singular, smiling, worldwide star.

In September 2010, Bolt travelled to Australia where his sponsor Gatorade was holding an event called the 'Gatorade Bolt' to find Australia's fastest footballer. The event was held at the Sydney International Athletic Centre and featured football players from rugby league, rugby union, Australian rules football, and association football. Prior to the race Bolt gave the runners some private coaching and also participated in the 10th anniversary celebrations for the 2000 Summer Olympic Games.^[282]

In January 2012, Bolt impersonated Richard Branson in an advertising campaign for Virgin Media.^[283] The campaign was directed by Seth Gordon and features the Virgin founder Branson to promote its broadband service. In March 2012, Bolt starred in an advert for Visa and the 2012 Summer Olympics.^[284] In July 2012, Bolt and RockLive launched Bolt!, an Apple iOS game based on his exploits. Bolt! quickly became the No. 1 app in Jamaica and climbed the UK iTunes charts to reach No. 2 on the list of Top Free Apps.^[285]

Bolt's autobiography, My Story: 9.58: Being the World's Fastest Man, was released in 2010. Bolt had previously said that the book '...should be exciting, it's my life, and I'm a cool and exciting guy.'^[269] His athletics agent is PACE Sports Management.^[286]

As part of his sponsorship deal with Puma, the manufacturer sends sporting equipment to his alma mater, William Knibb Memorial High School, every year. At Bolt's insistence, advertisements featuring him are filmed in Jamaica, by a Jamaican production crew, in an attempt to boost local enterprise and gain exposure for the country.^[287] In 2017, Bolt had the third highest earning social media income for sponsors among sportspeople (behind Cristiano Ronaldo and Neymar), and he was the only non-footballer in the top seven.^[288]

Recognition

• IAAF World Athlete of the Year: 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2016^[289]
• Track & Field Athlete of the Year: 2008, 2009
• Laureus World Sportsman of the Year: 2009, 2010, 2013, 2017^{[290][291][292]}
• BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year: 2008, 2009, 2012
• L'Équipe Champion of Champions: 2008, 2009, 2012, 2015
• Jamaica Sportsman of the year: 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013
• AIPS Male Athlete of the Year: 2015^[293]
• Marca Leyenda(2009)
• In October 2008, he was made a Commander of the Order of Distinction,^[294] which entitles him to use the post nominal letters CD.^[295]
• In 2009, at age 23, Usain Bolt became the youngest member so far^[296] of the Order of Jamaica.^[297][298] The award was 'for outstanding performance in the field of athletics at the international level'.^[296] In the Jamaican honours system, this is considered the equivalent of a knighthood in the British honours system,^[299] and entitles him to be formally styled 'The Honourable', and to use the post nominal letters OJ.^[295]

Personal appearances

Bolt made a cameo appearance in the opening sketch of 13 October 2012 broadcast of Saturday Night Live, hosted by Christina Applegate. The segment was a parody of the Vice Presidential debate between Joe Biden and Paul Ryan. In the sketch, Taran Killam mimicking Ryan had just lied about running a 2:50 marathon, a sub-4-minute mile on no training and winning the 100 metres in London when Bolt was introduced as his partner to confirm.

When Ryan asked Bolt 'Who won the 100 metres?' the Jamaican gold-medallist answered simply. 'I did.' Ryan followed up by asking Bolt about his (Ryan's) finish. 'You didn't finish. You weren't even there.'^[300][301]

On 23 November 2016, Bolt competed against James Corden in a rap battle on the 'Drop the Mic' segment of The Late Late Show with James Corden, which he won.

Statistics

Personal bests

Records

Bolt's personal best of 9.58 seconds in 2009 in the 100 metres is the fastest ever run.^[302] Bolt also holds the second fastest time of 9.63 seconds,^[87] the current Olympic record,^[89] and set two previous world records in the event. Bolt's personal best of 19.19 s in the 200 metres is the world record. This was recorded at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics in Berlin against a headwind of −0.3 m/s. This performance broke his previous world record in the event, his 19.30 s clocking in winning the 2008 Olympic 200 metres title.

Bolt has been on three world-record-setting Jamaican relay teams. The first record, 37.10 seconds, was set in winning gold at the 2008 Summer Olympics, although the result was voided in 2017 when the team was disqualified. The second record came at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics, a time of 37.04 seconds. The third world record was set at the 2012 Summer Olympics, a time of 36.84 seconds.^[303]

Bolt also holds the 200 metres world teenage best results for the age categories 15 (20.58 s), 16 (20.13 s, world youth record), 17 (19.93 s) and 18 (19.93 s, world junior record).^[87] He also holds the 150 metres world best set in 2009, during which he ran the last 100 metres in 8.70 seconds, the quickest timed 100 metres ever.^[87]

Bolt completed a total of 53 wind-legal sub-10-second performances in the 100 m during his career, with his first coming on 3 May 2008 and his last on 5 August 2017 at the World Championships. His longest undefeated streak in the 200 m was in 17 finals, lasting from 12 June 2008 to 3 September 2011. He also had a win-streak covering 14 100 m finals from 16 August 2008 to 16 July 2010.^[304]

Guinness World Records

Bolt claimed 19 Guinness World Records, and, after Michael Phelps, holds second highest number of accumulative Guinness World Records for total number of accomplishments and victories in the sport.^[305]

1. Fastest run 150 metres (male)
2. Most medals won at the IAAF Athletics World Championships (male)
3. Most gold medals won at the IAAF Athletics World Championships (male)
4. Most Athletics World Championships Men’s 200 m wins
5. Most consecutive Olympic gold medals won in the 100 metres (male)
6. Most consecutive Olympic gold medals won in the 200 metres (male)
7. Most Olympic men’s 200 metres Gold medals
8. Fastest run 200 metres (male)
9. Most Men’s IAAF World Athlete of Year Trophies
10. First Olympic track sprint triple-double
11. Highest annual earnings for a track athlete
12. Most wins of the 100 m sprint at the Olympic Games
13. First athlete to win the 100 m and 200 m sprints at successive Olympic Games
14. Fastest run 100 metres (male)
15. First man to win the 200 m sprint at successive Olympic Games
16. Most Athletics World Championships Men’s 100 m wins
17. Most tickets sold at an IAAF World Championships
18. Most competitive 100 m sprint races completed in sub 10 seconds
19. Fastest relay 4×100 metres (male)

Average and top speeds

From his record time of 9.58 s for the 100 m sprint, Usain Bolt's average ground speed equates to 37.58 km/h (23.35 mph). However, once his reaction time of 0.148 s is subtracted, his time is 9.44 s, making his average speed 38.18 km/h (23.72 mph).^[306] Bolt's top speed, based on his split time of 1.61 s for the 20 metres from the 60- to 80-metre marks (made during the 9.58 WR at 100m), is 12.42 m/s (44.72 km/h (27.79 mph)).^[307]

Season's bests

World rank in parentheses

International competitions

National titles

• Jamaican Athletics Championships
  • 100 m: 2008, 2009, 2013
  • 200 m: 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009

Circuit wins

• 2012 IAAF Diamond League (100 metres)

100 m

• Vardinoyiannia: 2007
• Kingston Jamaica Invitational: 2008, 2012
• New York Grand Prix: 2008
• Hampton International Games: 2008
• Weltklasse Zürich: 2008, 2009, 2013
• Memorial Van Damme: 2008, 2011, 2012, 2013
• Ostrava Golden Spike: 2009, 2011, 2012, 2016, 2017
• Meeting Areva: 2009, 2010
• London Grand Prix: 2009, 2013, 2015
• Colorful Daegu Championships Meeting: 2010
• Athletissima: 2010
• Golden Gala: 2011, 2012
• Herculis: 2011, 2017
• Hanžeković Memorial: 2011
• Kingston Racers Grand Prix: 2016, 2017

200 m

• New York Grand Prix: 2005, 2015
• Kingston Jamaica Invitational: 2005, 2006, 2010
• Ostrava Golden Spike: 2006, 2008, 2015
• Hanžeković Memorial: 2006
• London Grand Prix: 2007, 2008, 2016
• Hampton International Games: 2007
• Athens Grand Prix Tsiklitiria: 2008
• Athletissima: 2008, 2009, 2012
• Memorial Van Damme: 2009
• Shanghai Golden Grand Prix: 2010
• Bislett Games: 2011, 2012, 2013
• Meeting Areva: 2011, 2013
• DN Galan: 2011
• Weltklasse Zürich: 2012
• Warszawa Kamila Skolimowska Memorial: 2014
• Kingston Utech Classic: 2015

300 m

• Ostrava Golden Spike: 2010

See also

Notes

1. ^Not a competition event.
2. ^ ^abThis is not an official world record as the IAAF, the international athletics governing body, does not recognise the distance.

References

1. ^ ^{abcdefghijklmno}Lawrence, Hubert; Samuels, Garfield (20 August 2007). 'Focus on Jamaica – Usain Bolt'. Focus on Athletes. International Association of Athletics Federations. Archived from the original on 4 June 2013. Retrieved 1 June 2008.
2. ^Thomas, Claire. 'Built for speed: what makes Usain Bolt so fast?'. telegraph.co.uk. Telegraph Media Group Limited. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 20 August 2016.
3. ^'Usain BOLT'. usainbolt.com. Archived from the original on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 29 September 2015.
4. ^Thomas, Claire (25 July 2016). 'Glen Mills: the man behind Usain Bolt's record-shattering career'. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
5. ^Wile, Rob (11 August 2017). 'Usain Bolt Is Retiring. Here's How He Made Over $100 Million in 10 Years'. Money. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
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External links

• Usain Bolt at IAAF
• Usain Bolt timeline via The Daily Telegraph

Videos

• Usain Bolt wins the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics men's 100 metres final in 9.58 seconds via IAAF on YouTube
• Usain Bolt wins the 2009 Great CityGames Manchester men's 150 metres final in 14.35 seconds via Athletics Weekly on YouTube
• Usain Bolt wins the 2009 IAAF World Championships in Athletics men's 200 metres final in 19.19 seconds via IAAF on YouTube
• Usain Bolt wins the 2012 Olympic Games men's 100 metres final in 9.63 seconds via the Olympic Channel on YouTube
• Usain Bolt wins the 2012 Olympic Games men's 200 metres final in 19.32 seconds via the Olympic Channel on YouTube
• Usain Bolt wins the 2016 Olympic Games men's 100 metres final in 9.81 seconds via the Olympic Channel on YouTube
• Usain Bolt wins the 2016 Olympic Games men's 200 metres final in 19.79 seconds via the Olympic Channel on YouTube
• All of Usain Bolt's Olympic Games finals via the Olympic Channel on YouTube

Jamaica (/dʒəˈmeɪkə/(listen)) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning 10,990 square kilometres (4,240 sq mi) in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the fourth-largest island country in the Caribbean. Jamaica lies about 145 kilometres (90 mi) south of Cuba, and 191 kilometres (119 mi) west of Hispaniola (the island containing the countries of Haiti and the Dominican Republic).

Originally inhabited by the indigenous Arawak and Taíno peoples, the island came under Spanish rule following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494. Many of the indigenous people died of disease, and the Spanish transplanted African slaves to Jamaica as labourers. The island remained a possession of Spain until 1655, when England (later Great Britain) conquered it and renamed it Jamaica. Under British colonial rule Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with its plantation economy highly dependent on African slaves. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many freedmen chose to have subsistence farms rather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British utilized Chinese and Indian indentured labour to work on plantations. The island achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962.

With 2.9 million people,^[9] Jamaica is the third-most populous Anglophone country in the Americas (after the United States and Canada), and the fourth-most populous country in the Caribbean. Kingston is the country's capital and largest city, with a population of 937,700. Jamaicans mainly have African ancestry, with significant European, Chinese, Indian, Lebanese, and mixed-race minorities. Due to a high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, Jamaica has a large diaspora, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

Jamaica is an upper-middle income country^[10] with an average of 4.3 million tourists a year.^[11]

Jamaica is a Commonwealth realm, with Elizabeth II as its queen. Her appointed representative in the country is the Governor-General of Jamaica, an office held by Sir Patrick Allen since 2009. Andrew Holness has served as Prime Minister of Jamaica since March 2016. Jamaica is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with legislative power vested in the bicameral Parliament of Jamaica, consisting of an appointed Senate and a directly elected House of Representatives.

• 2History
• 3Government and politics
• 4Geography and environment
• 5Demographics
• 7Culture
• 10Infrastructure
  • 10.1Transport

Etymology

The indigenous people, the Taíno, called the island Xaymaca in Arawakan,^[12] meaning the 'Land of Wood and Water' or the 'Land of Springs'.^[13]

Colloquially Jamaicans refer to their home island as the 'Rock.' Slang names such as 'Jamrock', 'Jamdown' ('Jamdung' in Jamaican Patois), or briefly 'Ja', have derived from this.^[14]

History

Prehistory

The Arawak and Taíno indigenous people, originating in South America, first settled on the island between 4000 and 1000 BC.^[15] When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1494, there were more than 200 villages ruled by caciques (chiefs of villages). The south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour.^[15] The Taino still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655.^[15] The Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any evidence of the Taino/yamaye.^[16] Today, few Jamaican natives remain. Most notably among some Maroon communities as well as within some communities in Cornwall County, Jamaica^[17][18][19]

Spanish rule (1509–1655)

Christopher Columbus claimed Jamaica for Spain after landing there in 1494. His probable landing point was Dry Harbour, called Discovery Bay,^[20] and St. Ann's Bay was named 'Saint Gloria' by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land. One and a half kilometres west of St. Ann's Bay is the site of the first Spanish settlement on the island, Sevilla, which was established in 1509 and abandoned around 1524 because it was deemed unhealthy.^[21] The capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called St. Jago de la Vega, around 1534 (at present-day St. Catherine).^[22]

British rule (1655–1962)

Spanish Town has the oldest cathedral of the British colonies in the Caribbean.^[22] The Spanish were forcibly evicted by the English at Ocho Rios in St. Ann. In the 1655 Invasion of Jamaica, the English, led by Sir William Penn and General Robert Venables, took over the last Spanish fort on the island.^[23] The name of Montego Bay, the capital of the parish of St. James, was derived from the Spanish name bahía de manteca (or Bay of Lard), alluding to the lard-making industry based on processing the numerous boars in the area.^[24]

In 1660, the population of Jamaica was about 4,500 white and 1,500 black.^[26] By the early 1670s, as the English developed sugar cane plantations and 'imported' more slaves, black people formed a majority of the population.^[27] The colony was shaken and almost destroyed by the 1692 Jamaica earthquake.

The Irish in Jamaica also formed a large part of the island's early population, making up two-thirds of the white population on the island in the late 17th century, twice that of the English population. They were brought in as indentured labourers and soldiers after the conquest of Jamaica by Cromwell's forces in 1655. The majority of Irish were transported by force as political prisoners of war from Ireland as a result of the ongoing Wars of the Three Kingdoms at the time.^[28] Migration of large numbers of Irish to the island continued into the 18th century.^[29]

Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492 and then forcibly converted to Christianity in Portugal, during a period of persecution by the Inquisition. Some Spanish and Portuguese Jewish refugees went to the Netherlands and England, and from there to Jamaica. Others were part of the Iberian colonisation of the New World, after overtly converting to Catholicism, as only Catholics were allowed in the Spanish colonies. By 1660, Jamaica had become a refuge for Jews in the New World, also attracting those who had been expelled from Spain and Portugal.

An early group of Jews arrived in 1510, soon after the son of Christopher Columbus settled on the island. Primarily working as merchants and traders, the Jewish community was forced to live a clandestine life, calling themselves 'Portugals'. After the British took over rule of Jamaica, the Jews decided the best defense against Spain's regaining control was to encourage making the colony a base for Caribbean pirates. With the pirates installed in Port Royal, which became the largest city in the Caribbean, the Spanish would be deterred from attacking. The British leaders agreed with the viability of this strategy to forestall outside aggression.^[30]

When the English captured Jamaica in 1655, the Spanish colonists fled after freeing their slaves.^[23] The slaves dispersed into the mountains, joining the maroons, those who had previously escaped to live with the Taíno native people.^[31] During the centuries of slavery, Maroons established free communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica, where they maintained their freedom and independence for generations. The Jamaican Maroons fought the British during the 18th century. Under treaties of 1738 and 1739, the British agreed to stop trying to round them up in exchange for their leaving the colonial settlements alone, but serving if needed for military actions.^[31] Some of the communities were broken up and the British deported Maroons to Nova Scotia and, later, Sierra Leone. The name is still used today by modern Maroon descendants, who have certain rights and autonomy at the community of Accompong.

During its first 200 years of British rule, Jamaica became one of the world's leading sugar-exporting, slave-dependent colonies, producing more than 77,000 tons of sugar annually between 1820 and 1824. After the abolition of the international slave trade in 1807,^[32] the British began to 'import' indentured servants to supplement the labour pool, as many freedmen resisted working on the plantations. Workers recruited from India began arriving in 1845, Chinese workers in 1854.^[33] Many South Asian and Chinese descendants continue to reside in Jamaica today.^[34][35]

By the beginning of the 19th century, Jamaica's dependence on slave labour and a plantation economy had resulted in black people outnumbering white people by a ratio of almost 20 to 1. Although the UK had outlawed the importation of slaves, some were still smuggled in from Spanish colonies and directly. While planning the abolition of slavery, the British Parliament passed laws to improve conditions for slaves. They banned the use of whips in the field and flogging of women; informed planters that slaves were to be allowed religious instruction, and required a free day during each week when slaves could sell their produce,^[36] prohibiting Sunday markets to enable slaves to attend church.^{[citation needed]}

The House of Assembly in Jamaica resented and resisted the new laws. Members (then restricted to European-Jamaicans) claimed that the slaves were content and objected to Parliament's interference in island affairs. Slave owners feared possible revolts if conditions were lightened. Following a series of rebellions on the island and changing attitudes in Great Britain, the British government formally abolished slavery by an 1833 act, beginning in 1834, with full emancipation from chattel slavery declared in 1838. The population in 1834 was 371,070, of whom 15,000 were white, 5,000 free black; 40,000 'coloured' or free people of color (mixed race); and 311,070 were slaves.^[26]

Over the next 20 years, several epidemics of cholera, scarlet fever, and smallpox hit the island, killing almost 60,000 people (about 100 per day). Nevertheless, in 1871 the census recorded a population of 506,154 people, 246,573 of which were males, and 259,581 females. Their races were recorded as 13,101 white, 100,346 coloured (mixed black and white), and 392,707 black.^[37]

In the 19th century, the British established a number of botanical gardens. These included the Castleton Botanical Gardens, developed in 1862 to replace the Bath Botanical Gardens (created in 1779) which was subject to flooding. Bath Botanical Gardens was the site for planting breadfruit, brought to Jamaica from the Pacific by Captain William Bligh. It became a staple in island diets. Other gardens were the CinchonaPlantation, founded in 1868, and the Hope Botanical Gardens founded in 1874. In 1872, Kingston was designated as the island's capital.

In 1945, Sir Horace Hector Hearne became Chief Justice and Keeper of the Records in Jamaica. He headed the Supreme Court, Kingston between 1945 and 1950/1951. After Kenya achieved independence, its government appointed him as Chief Justice and he moved there.

Independence (1962)

Jamaica slowly gained increasing independence from the United Kingdom. In 1958, it became a province in the Federation of the West Indies, a federation among the British West Indies. Jamaica attained full independence by leaving the federation in 1962.

Strong economic growth, averaging approximately 6% per annum, marked the first ten years of independence under conservative Jamaica Labour Party governments; these were led by successive Prime Ministers Alexander Bustamante, Donald Sangster and Hugh Shearer. The growth was fueled by high levels of private investment in bauxite/alumina, tourism, the manufacturing industry and, to a lesser extent, the agricultural sector.

The optimism of the first decade was accompanied by a growing sense of inequality among many Afro-Jamaicans, and a concern that the benefits of growth were not being shared by the urban poor.^{[citation needed]} Combined with the effects of a slowdown in the global economy in 1970,^{[citation needed]} the voters elected the PNP (People's National Party) in 1972. It tried to implement more socially equitable policies in education and health, but the economy suffered under its government. By 1980, Jamaica's gross national product had declined to some 25% below its 1972 level. Owing to rising foreign and local debt, accompanied by large fiscal deficits, the government sought International Monetary Fund (IMF) financing from the United States and others.

Economic deterioration continued into the mid-1980s, exacerbated by a number of factors. The largest and third-largest alumina producers, Alpart and Alcoa, closed; and there was a significant reduction in production by the second-largest producer, Alcan. Reynolds Jamaica Mines, Ltd. left the Jamaican industry. There was also a decline in tourism, which was important to the economy.

Independence, however widely celebrated in Jamaica, has been questioned in the early 21st century. In 2011, a survey showed that approximately 60% of Jamaicans believe that the country would be better off had it remained a British colony, with only 17% believing it would be worse off, citing as problems years of social and fiscal mismanagement in the country.^[38][39]

Government and politics

Jamaica is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy. The current Queen of Jamaica is Elizabeth II.^[40] As Elizabeth II is queen of fifteen other countries and resides mostly in the United Kingdom, she is often represented by the Governor-General of Jamaica.^[41]

The governor-general is nominated by the Prime Minister of Jamaica and the entire Cabinet and then appointed by the monarch. All the members of the Cabinet are appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister. The monarch and the governor-general serve largely ceremonial roles, apart from their reserve powers for use in certain constitutional crisis situations.

Jamaica's current constitution was drafted in 1962 by a bipartisan joint committee of the Jamaican legislature. It came into force with the Jamaica Independence Act, 1962 of the United Kingdom parliament, which gave Jamaica independence.

The Parliament of Jamaica is bicameral, consisting of the House of Representatives (Lower House) and the Senate (Upper House). Members of the House (known as Members of Parliament or MPs) are directly elected, and the member of the House of Representatives who, in the governor-general's best judgement, is best able to command the confidence of a majority of the members of that House, is appointed by the governor-general to be the prime minister. Senators are nominated jointly by the prime minister and the parliamentary Leader of the Opposition and are then appointed by the governor-general.

Political parties and elections

Jamaica has traditionally had a two-party system, with power often alternating between the People's National Party (PNP) and Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). The party with current administrative and legislative power is the Jamaica Labour Party, with a one-seat parliamentary majority as of 2016. There are also several minor parties who have yet to gain a seat in parliament; the largest of these is the National Democratic Movement (NDM).

Administrative divisions

Jamaica is divided into 14 parishes, which are grouped into three historic counties that have no administrative relevance.

In the context of local government the parishes are designated 'Local Authorities.' These local authorities are further styled as 'Municipal Corporations,' which are either city municipalities or town municipalities.^[42] Any new city municipality must have a population of at least 50,000, and a town municipality a number set by the Minister of Local Government.^[42] There are currently no town municipalities.

The local governments of the parishes of Kingston and St. Andrews are consolidated as the city municipality of Kingston & St. Andrew Municipal Corporation. The newest city municipality created is the Municipality of Portmore in 2003. While it is geographically located within the parish of St. Catherine, it is governed independently.

Military

The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) is the small but professional military force of Jamaica. The JDF is based on the British military model with similar organisation, training, weapons and traditions. Once chosen, officer candidates are sent to one of several British or Canadian basic officer courses depending on the arm of service. Enlisted soldiers are given basic training at Up Park Camp or JDF Training Depot, Newcastle, both in St. Andrew. As with the British model, NCOs are given several levels of professional training as they rise up the ranks. Additional military schools are available for speciality training in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom.

The JDF is directly descended from the British Army's West India Regiment formed during the colonial era.^[43] The West India Regiment was used extensively by the British Empire in policing the empire from 1795 to 1926. Other units in the JDF heritage include the early colonial Jamaica Militia, the Kingston Infantry Volunteers of WWI and reorganised into the Jamaican Infantry Volunteers in World War II. The West Indies Regiment was reformed in 1958 as part of the West Indies Federation, after dissolution of the Federation the JDF was established.

The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) comprises an infantry Regiment and Reserve Corps, an Air Wing, a Coast Guard fleet and a supporting Engineering Unit.^[44] The infantry regiment contains the 1st, 2nd and 3rd (National Reserve) battalions. The JDF Air Wing is divided into three flight units, a training unit, a support unit and the JDF Air Wing (National Reserve). The Coast Guard is divided between seagoing crews and support crews who conduct maritime safety and maritime law enforcement as well as defence-related operations.^[45]

The role of the support battalion is to provide support to boost numbers in combat and issue competency training in order to allow for the readiness of the force.^[46] The 1st Engineer Regiment was formed due to an increased demand for military engineers and their role is to provide engineering services whenever and wherever they are needed.^[47] The Headquarters JDF contains the JDF Commander, Command Staff as well as Intelligence, Judge Advocate office, Administrative and Procurement sections.^[48]

In recent years the JDF has been called on to assist the nation's police, the Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF), in fighting drug smuggling and a rising crime rate which includes one of the highest murder rates in the world. JDF units actively conduct armed patrols with the JCF in high-crime areas and known gang neighbourhoods. There has been vocal controversy as well as support of this JDF role. In early 2005, an Opposition leader, Edward Seaga, called for the merger of the JDF and JCF. This has not garnered support in either organisation nor among the majority of citizens.

Geography and environment

Jamaica is the third largest island in the Caribbean.^[49] It lies between latitudes 17° and 19°N, and longitudes 76° and 79°W. Mountains, including the Blue Mountains, dominate the inland. They are surrounded by a narrow coastal plain.^[50] Jamaica only has two cities, the first being Kingston, the capital city and centre of business, located on the south coast and the 'second' city being Montego Bay, one of the best known cities in the Caribbean for tourism, located on the north coast. Other towns include Portmore, Spanish Town, Mandeville and the resort towns of Ocho Ríos, Port Antonio and Negril.^[51]

Kingston Harbour is the seventh-largest natural harbour in the world,^[52] which contributed to the city being designated as the capital in 1872.

Tourist attractions include Dunn's River Falls in St. Ann, YS Falls in St. Elizabeth, the Blue Lagoon in Portland, believed to be the crater of an extinct volcano. Port Royal was the site of a major earthquake in 1692 that helped form the island's Palisadoes.^{[53][54][55][56]}

The climate in Jamaica is tropical, with hot and humid weather, although higher inland regions are more temperate.^[57] Some regions on the south coast, such as the Liguanea Plain and the Pedro Plains, are relatively dry rain-shadow areas.^[58]

Jamaica lies in the hurricane belt of the Atlantic Ocean and because of this, the island sometimes suffers significant storm damage.^[59] Hurricanes Charlie and Gilbert hit Jamaica directly in 1951 and 1988, respectively, causing major damage and many deaths. In the 2000s (decade), hurricanes Ivan, Dean, and Gustav also brought severe weather to the island.

Among the variety of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems are dry and wet limestone forests, rainforest, riparian woodland, wetlands, caves, rivers, seagrass beds and coral reefs. The authorities have recognised the tremendous significance and potential of the environment and have designated some of the more 'fertile' areas as 'protected'. Among the island's protected areas are the Cockpit Country, Hellshire Hills, and Litchfield forest reserves. In 1992, Jamaica's first marine park, covering nearly 15 square kilometres (5.8 sq mi), was established in Montego Bay. Portland Bight Protected Area was designated in 1999.^[60]

The following year Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park was created on roughly 300 square miles (780 km²) of wilderness, which supports thousands of tree and fern species and rare animals.

Flora and fauna

Jamaica's climate is tropical, supporting diverse ecosystems with a wealth of plants and animals.

Jamaica's plant life has changed considerably over the centuries. When the Spanish arrived in 1494, except for small agricultural clearings, the country was deeply forested. The European settlers cut down the great timber trees for building and ships' supplies, and cleared the plains, savannas, and mountain slopes for intense agricultural cultivation. Many new plants were introduced including sugarcane, bananas, and citrus trees.

Today, however, Jamaica is now the home to about 3,000 species of native flowering plants (of which over 1,000 are endemic and 200 are species of orchid), thousands of species of non-flowering flora, and about 20 botanical gardens, some of which are several hundred years old.^[61][62]

Areas of heavy rainfall also contain stands of bamboo, ferns, ebony, mahogany, and rosewood. Cactus and similar dry-area plants are found along the south and southwest coastal area. Parts of the west and southwest consist of large grasslands, with scattered stands of trees.

The Jamaican animal life, typical of the Caribbean, includes highly diversified wildlife with many endemic species found nowhere else on earth. As with other oceanic islands, land mammals are mostly several species of bats of which at least three endemic species are found only in Cockpit Country, one of which is at-risk. Other species of bat include the fig-eating and hairy-tailed bats. The only non-bat native mammal extant in Jamaica is the Jamaican hutia, locally known as the coney. Introduced mammals such as wild boar and the small Asian mongoose are also common. Jamaica is also home to about 50 species of reptiles,^[63] the largest of which is the American crocodile; however, it is only present within the Black River and a few other areas. Lizards such as anoles, iguanas and snakes such as racers and the Jamaican boa (the largest snake on the island), are common in areas such as the Cockpit Country. None of Jamaica's eight species of native snakes is venomous.^[64]

Jamaica is home to about 289 species of birds of which 27 are endemic (found nowhere else in the world), including the endangered black-Billed parrots and the Jamaican blackbird, both of which are only found in Cockpit Country. It is also the indigenous home to four species of hummingbirds (three of which are found nowhere else in the world): the black-billed streamertail, the Jamaican mango, the Vervain hummingbird, and red-billed streamertails. The red-billed streamertail, known locally as the 'doctor bird', is Jamaica's National Symbol.^[65]

One species of freshwater turtle is native to Jamaica, the Jamaican slider. It is found only on Jamaica, Cat Island, and a few other islands in the Bahamas. In addition, many types of frogs are common on the island, especially treefrogs. Birds are abundant, and make up the bulk of the endemic and native vertebrate species. Beautiful and exotic birds, such as the Jamaican tody and the Greater flamingo,^[66] can be found among a large number of others.

Jamaican waters contain considerable resources of fresh-and saltwater fish.^[67] The chief varieties of saltwater fish are kingfish, jack, mackerel, whiting, bonito, and tuna. Fish that occasionally enter freshwater and estuarine environments include snook, jewfish, mangrove snapper, and mullets. Fish that spend the majority of their lives in Jamaica's fresh waters include many species of livebearers, killifish, freshwater gobies, the mountain mullet, and the American eel. Tilapia have been introduced from Africa for aquaculture, and are very common. Also visible in the waters surrounding Jamaica are dolphins, parrotfish, and the endangered manatee.^[68]

Insects and other invertebrates are abundant, including the world's largest centipede, the Amazonian giant centipede.

Jamaica is the home to about 150 species of butterflies and moths, including 35 indigenous species and 22 subspecies. It is also the native home to the Jamaican swallowtail, the western hemisphere's largest butterfly.^[69]

Life Below Water

Coral reef ecosystems are important because they provide people with a source of livelihood, food, recreation, and medicinal compounds and protect the land on which they live.^[70] Jamaica relies on the ocean and its ecosystem for its development. However the marine life in Jamaica is also being affected. There could be many factors that contribute to marine life not having the best health. Jamaica's geological origin, topographical features and seasonal high rainfall make it susceptible to a range of natural hazards that can affect the coastal and oceanic environments. These include storm surge, slope failures (landslides), earthquakes, floods and hurricanes.^[71] Coral reefs in the Negril Marine Park (NMP), Jamaica, have been increasingly impacted by nutrient pollution and macroalgal blooms following decades of intensive development as a major tourist destination.^[72] Another one of those factors could include tourist, being that Jamaica is a very touristy place the island draws people to travel here from all over the world. The Jamaican tourism industry accounts for 32% of total employment and 36% of the country's GDP [2] and is largely based on the sun, sea and sand, the last two of these attributes being dependent on healthy coral reef ecosystems.^[70] Because of Jamaica's tourism, they have developed a study to see if the tourist would be willing to help financially to manage their marine ecosystem because Jamaica alone is unable to. The ocean connects all the countries all over the world, however, everyone and everything is affecting the flow and life in the ocean. Jamaica is a very touristy place specifically because of their beaches. If their oceans are not functioning at their best then the well-being of Jamaica and the people who live there will start to deteriorate. According to the OECD, oceans contribute $1.5 trillion annually in value-added to the overall economy.^[73] A developing country on an island will get the majority of their revenue from their ocean. Healthy oceans, coasts and freshwater ecosystems are crucial for economic growth and food production, but they are also fundamental to global efforts to mitigate climate change.^[73] Climate change also has an affect on the ocean and life within the ocean.

Pollution

Pollution occurs everywhere in which could cause damage. Pollution comes from run-off, sewage systems, and garbage. However, this typically all ends up in the ocean after there is rain or floods. Everything that ends up in the water changes the quality and balance of the ocean. Poor coastal water quality has adversely affected fisheries, tourism and mariculture, as well as undermining biological sustainability of the living resources of ocean and coastal habitats.^[71] Jamaica imports and exports many goods through their waters. Some of the imports that go into Jamaica include petroleum and petroleum products. Issues include accidents at sea; risk of spills through local and international transport of petroleum and petroleum products.^[71] Oil spills can disrupt the marine life because the chemicals that are being spilled that should not be there. Oil and water do not mix. Unfortunately oil spills is not the only form of pollution that occurs in Jamaica. Solid waste disposal mechanisms in Jamaica are currently inadequate.^[71] The solid waste gets into the water through rainfall forces. Solid waste is also harmful to wildlife, particularly birds, fish and turtles that feed at the surface of the water and mistake floating debris for food.^[71] For example, plastic can be caught around birds and turtles necks making it difficult to eat and breath as they begin to grow causing the plastic to get tighter around their necks. Pieces of plastic, metal, and glass can be mistaken for the food fish eat. Each Jamaican generates 1 kg (2 lbs) of waste per day...only 70% of this is collected by National Solid Waste Management Authority (NSWMA)...the remaining 30% is either burnt or disposed of in gullies/waterways.^[74]

Policy

There are policies that are being put into place to help preserve the ocean and the life below water. The goal of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is to improve the quality of life of human communities who depend on coastal resources while maintaining the biological diversity and productivity of coastal ecosystems.^[71] Developing a underdeveloped country can impact the oceans ecosystem because of all the construction that would be done to develop the country. Over-building, driven by powerful market forces as well as poverty among some sectors of the population, and destructive exploitation contribute to the decline of ocean and coastal resources.^[71] Developing practices that will contribute to the lives of the people but also to the life of the ocean and its ecosystem. Some of these practices include: Develop sustainable fisheries practices, ensure sustainable mariculture techniques and practices, sustainable management of shipping, and promote sustainable tourism practices.^[71] As for tourism, tourism is the number one source of foreign exchange earnings in Jamaica and, as such is vital to the national economy.^[71] Tourist typically go to countries unaware of issues and how they impact those issues. Tourist are not going to be used to living in a different style compared to their own country. Practices such as: provide sewage treatment facilities for all tourist areas, determine carrying capacity of the environment prior to planning tourism activities, provide alternative types of tourist activities can help to get desired results such as the development of alternative tourism which will reduce the current pressure on resources that support traditional tourism activities.^[71] A study was conducted to see how tourist could help with sustainable financing for ocean and coastal management in Jamaica. Instead of using tourist fees they would call them environmental fees. This study aims to inform the relevant stakeholders of the feasibility of implementing environmental fees as well as the likely impact of such revenue generating instruments on the current tourist visitation rates to the island.^[70] The development of a user fee system would help fund environmental management and protection. The results show that tourists have a high consumer surplus associated with a vacation in Jamaica, and have a significantly lower willingness to pay for a tourism tax when compared to an environmental tax. The findings of the study show that the “label” of the tax and as well as the respondent's awareness of the institutional mechanisms for environmental protection and tourism are important to their decision framework.^[70] Tourist are more willing to pay for environmental fees rather than tourist tax fees. A tax high enough to fund for environmental management and protection but low enough to continue to bring tourist to Jamaica. It has been shows that if an environmental tax of $1 per person were introduced it would not cause a significant decline in visitation rates and would generate revenues of US$1.7M.^[70]

Demographics

Ethnic origins

The Jamaican national motto is 'Out of Many One People', based on the population's multiracial roots. The motto is represented on the Coat of Arms, showing a male and female member of the Taino Indian tribe standing on either side of a shield which bears a red cross with five golden pineapples.^[75]

Most of Jamaica's population is of African or partially African descent with many being able to trace their origins to the Western and Central African countries of Ghana and Cameroon,^[76] as well as Europe^[77] and Asia.^[78] Like many other anglophone Caribbean countries, many Jamaicans with mixed ancestry self-report as black.^[79] The prominent black nationalist Marcus Garvey is possibly the most famous Jamaican who was of full African heritage. Other famous full African Jamaicans include the Maroons of Accompong and other settlements, who were the descendants of escaped slaves that introduced the jerk cooking technique to the world. Many Maroons continue to have their own traditions and speak their own language, known locally as 'Kromanti'.

It is extremely uncommon for Jamaicans to identify themselves by race as is prominent in countries like the United States where the race of a person is hyphenated with the ethnicity proceeding the nationality, for example, the American usage of the terms, White-American or African-American. Due to its history, most Jamaicans describe their nationality as a race in and of itself where they identify as simply being 'Jamaican' regardless of ethnicity.^[80][79]

Asians form the second-largest group and include Indo-Jamaicans and Chinese Jamaicans.^[81] Most are descended from indentured workers brought by the British colonial government to fill labour shortages following the abolition of slavery in 1838. Prominent Indian Jamaicans include jockey Shaun Bridgmohan, who was the first Jamaican in the Kentucky Derby, NBC Nightly News journalist Lester Holt, and Miss Jamaica World and Miss Universe winner Yendi Phillips. The southwestern parish of Westmoreland is famous for its large population of Indo-Jamaicans.^[82]

Along with their Indian counterparts, Chinese Jamaicans have also played an integral part in Jamaica's community and history. Prominent descendants of this group include Canadian billionaire investor Michael Lee-Chin, supermodels Naomi Campbell and Tyson Beckford, and VP Records founder Vincent 'Randy' Chin.

There are about 20,000 Jamaicans who have Lebanese ancestry.^[83] Most were Christian immigrants who fled the Ottoman occupation in the early 19th century. Eventually, their descendants along with Syrian Jamaicans (Bob Marley), became very successful politicians and businessmen. Notable Jamaicans from this group include former Jamaican Prime Minister Edward Seaga, Jamaican politician and former Miss World Lisa Hanna, Jamaican politicians Edward Zacca and Shahine Robinson, and hotelier Abraham Elias Issa.

In 1835, Lord Seaford gave 500 acres of his 10,000 acre estate in Westmoreland for the Seaford Town German settlement. Today most of the town's descendants are of full or partial German descent.^[84]

The first wave of English immigrants arrived to the island 1655, after conquering the Spanish. Today, their descendants represent some of Jamaica's most celebrated representatives. Prominent descendants from this group include former American Governor of New York David Paterson, Sandals Hotels owner Gordon Butch Stewart, United States Presidential Advisor and 'mother' of the Pell Grant Lois Rice, and former United States National Security Advisor and Ambassador to the United Nations Susan Rice.

The first Irish immigrants came to Jamaica in the 1600s as war prisoners and later, indentured labor. Despite their very sordid arrival, their descendants became very accomplished men. Their descendants include two of Jamaica's National Heros: Prime Ministers Michael Manley and Alexander Bustamante.

Along with the English and the Irish, the Scots are another group that has made a significant impact on the island. According to the Scotland Herald newspaper, Jamaica has more Campbell surnames, than the population of Scotland itself and it also has the highest percentage of Scottish surnames outside of Scotland. Scottish surnames account to about 60% of the surnames in the Jamaican phone books. The first Jamaican inhabitants from Scotland were exiled 'rebels'. Later, they would be followed by ambitious businessmen who spent time between their great country estates in Scotland and the island. As a result, many of the slave owning plantations on the island were owned by Scottish men and it resulted in the high occurrence of Jamaica's coloured (mixed-race) population. High immigration from Scotland continued until well after independence. Today, notable Scottish-Jamaicans include Jamaican businessman John Pringle, former American Secretary of State Colin Powell, and American actress Kerry Washington.^[85]

There is also a significant Portuguese Jamaican population that is predominantly of Sephardic Jewish heritage that is primarily located in the Saint Elizabeth Parish in the southwestern part of Jamaica. The first Jews arrived as explorers from Spain in the 15th century after being forced to convert to Christianity or face death. Some (very few), became slave owners and even famous pirates.^[86] Judaism eventually became very influential in Jamaica and can be seen today with many Jewish cemeteries around the country. Many visitors to the island are often surprised to find many 'dark' colored (mixed-race) Jamaicans with Jewish surnames. During the Holocaust, Jamaica became a refuge for Jews who faced expulsion. Famous Jewish descendants include the dancehall artist Sean Paul, former record producer and founder of Island Records Chris Blackwell, and Jacob De Cordova who was the founder of the Jamaica Gleaner newspaper^[87][88][89]

In recent years, immigration has increased, coming mainly from China, Haiti, Cuba, Colombia, and Latin America; 20,000 Latin Americans reside in Jamaica.^{[90][citation needed]} The Jamaican government is currently considering making Spanish Jamaica's second official language. The move has been encouraged by Spain's Secretary for International Cooperation, Fernando Garcia Casas, who thinks that '...bilateral cooperation between (his) country and Jamaica could be greatly increased by encouraging greater use of the Spanish language there'.^[91][92]

About 7,000 Americans also reside in Jamaica.^{[citation needed]}

American fashion icon and philanthropist Ralph Lauren has been a resident of the island for almost 30 years. His estate, Round Hill Hotel and Villas, is a popular tourist destination and hotel, that was the location of American President John F. Kennedy's honeymoon after marrying his wife Jacqueline. It has also hosted several celebrities and politicians from around the world and has been the inspiration for many of his home and fashion collections, including the Spring 2018 collection that was officially presented at New York Fashion Week. Lauren's wife, Ricky, is also a popular socialite among locals who has written a book about the island entitled, 'My Home'.^{[93][94][95][96][97]} Other American residents include philanthropist Daisy Soros, Blackstone's Schwarzman family, the family of the late Lieutenant Governor of Delaware John W. Rollins, fashion designer Vanessa Noel, investor Guy Stuart, Edward and Patricia Falkenberg, and iHeart Media CEO Bob Pittman, all of whom hold annual charity events to support the island.^[98]

There are also many first-generation American, British and Canadians of Jamaican descent.^[99]

A study found that the average admixture on the island was 78.3% Sub-Saharan African, 16.0% European, and 5.7% East Asian.^[100]

Languages

Jamaica is regarded as a bilingual country, with two major languages in use by the population.^[101] The official language is English, which is 'used in all domains of public life', including the government, the legal system, the media, and education. However, the primary spoken language is an English-based creole called Jamaican Patois (or Patwa). A 2007 survey by the Jamaican Language Unit found that 17.1 percent of the population were monolingual in Jamaican Standard English (JSE), 36.5 percent were monolingual in Patois, and 46.4 percent were bilingual, although earlier surveys had pointed to a greater degree of bilinguality (up to 90 percent).^[102] The Jamaican education system has only recently begun to offer formal instruction in Patois, while retaining JSE as the 'official language of instruction'.^[103]

Additionally, some Jamaicans use one or more of Jamaican Sign Language (JSL), American Sign Language (ASL) or the indigenous Jamaican Country Sign Language (Konchri Sain).^[104] Both JSL and ASL are rapidly replacing Konchri Sain for a variety of reasons.^[104]

Emigration

Many Jamaicans have emigrated to other countries, especially to the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. In the case of the United States, about 20,000 Jamaicans per year are granted permanent residence.^[105] The great number of Jamaicans living abroad has become known as the Jamaican diaspora. There has also been emigration of Jamaicans to Cuba.^[106] The scale of emigration has been widespread and similar to other Caribbean entities such as Puerto Rico, Guyana, and The Bahamas. It was estimated in 2004 that up to 2.5 million Jamaicans and Jamaican descendants live abroad.^[107]

Jamaicans in the United Kingdom number an estimated 800,000 making them by far the country's largest African-Caribbean group. Large-scale migration from Jamaica to the UK occurred primarily in the 1950s and 1960s (when the country was still under British rule). Jamaican communities exist in most large UK cities.^[108] Concentrations of expatriate Jamaicans are quite considerable in numerous cities in the United States, including New York City, Buffalo, the Miami metro area, Atlanta, Chicago, Orlando, Tampa, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, Hartford, Providence and Los Angeles. In Canada, the Jamaican population is centred in Toronto, and there are smaller communities in cities such as Hamilton, Montreal, Winnipeg, Vancouver and Ottawa.

Crime

When Jamaica gained independence in 1962, the murder rate was 3.9 per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the lowest in the world. By 2009, the rate was 62 per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the highest in the world.^[109] Jamaica has had one of the highest murder rates in the world for many years, according to UN estimates.^[110][111] Some areas of Jamaica, particularly cities such as Kingston, experience high levels of crime and violence.^[112] Some Jamaicans are hostile towards LGBT and intersex people,^[113] and mob attacks against gay people have been reported.^{[114][115][116]} Male homosexuality is illegal and punishable by prison time^[117]although it is not enforced.^{[citation needed]}

However, there were 1,682 reported murders in 2009 and 1,428 in 2010.^{[citation needed]} After 2011 the murder rate continued to fall, following the downward trend in 2010, after a strategic programme was launched.^[118] In 2012, the Ministry of National Security reported a 30 percent decrease in murders.^[119] Nevertheless, in 2017 murders rose by 22% over the previous year.^[120]

Major cities

Religion

Christianity is the largest religion practised in Jamaica. Protestants form the majority of approximately 70% in the country, and Roman Catholics are a minority with 2% of the population. According to the 2001 census, the country's largest Protestant denominations are the Church of God (24%), Seventh-day Adventist Church (11%), Pentecostal (10%), Baptist (7%), Anglican (4%), United Church (2%), Methodist (2%), Moravian (1%) and Plymouth Brethren (1%)^[121] The Christian faith gained acceptance as British Christian abolitionists and Baptist missionaries joined educated former slaves in the struggle against slavery.^[122]

The Rastafari movement has 29,026 adherents, according to the 2011 census, with 25,325 Rastafarian males and 3,701 Rastafarian females.^[121] Other religions in Jamaica include Jehovah's Witnesses (2% population), the Bahá'í faith, which counts perhaps 8,000 adherents^[123] and 21 Local Spiritual Assemblies,^[124]Buddhism, and Hinduism. The Hindu Diwali festival is celebrated yearly among the Indo-Jamaican community.^[125][126]

There is also a small population of Jews, about 200, who describe themselves as Liberal-Conservative.^[127] The first Jews in Jamaica trace their roots back to early 15th-century Spain and Portugal.^[128]Kahal Kadosh Shaare Shalom, also known as the United Congregation of Israelites, is a historic synagogue located in the city of Kingston. Originally built in 1912, it is the official and only Jewish place of worship left on the island. The once abundant Jewish population has voluntarily converted to Christianity over time. Shaare Shalom is one of the few synagogues in the world that contains sand covered floors and is a popular tourist destination.^[129][130]

On March 23, 2002, Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan visited Shaare Shalom, his first visit to a synagogue,^[131] in an attempt to repair his controversial relationship with the Jewish community.^[132] Farrakhan was accepted to speak at Shaare Shalom in the native country of his father, after being rejected to appear at American synagogues, many of whom had fear of sending the wrong signal to the Jewish community.^[132][131]

Other small groups include Muslims, who claim 5,000 adherents,^[121] The Muslim holidays of Ashura, known locally as Hussay or Hosay and Eid, have been celebrated throughout the island for hundreds of years. In the past, every plantation in each parish celebrated Hosay. Today it has been called an Indian carnival and is perhaps most well known in Clarendon where it is celebrated each August. People of all religions attend the event, showing mutual respect.^[133][126]

There is also a small community of Mormons.^[134]

Culture

Music

Though a small nation, Jamaican culture has a strong global presence. The musical genres reggae, ska, mento, rocksteady, dub, and, more recently, dancehall and ragga all originated in the island's vibrant, popular urban recording industry. Jamaica also played an important role in the development of punk rock, through reggae and ska. Reggae has also influenced American rap music, as they share roots as rhythmic, African styles of music. Some rappers, such as The Notorious B.I.G., Busta Rhymes, and Heavy D, are of Jamaican descent. Internationally known reggae musician Bob Marley was also Jamaican.

Many other internationally known artists were born in Jamaica, including Millie Small, Lee 'Scratch' Perry, Gregory Isaacs, Half Pint, Protoje, Peter Tosh, Bunny Wailer, Big Youth, Jimmy Cliff, Dennis Brown, Desmond Dekker, Beres Hammond, Beenie Man, Shaggy, Grace Jones, Shabba Ranks, Super Cat, Buju Banton, Sean Paul, I Wayne, Bounty Killer and many others. Bands that came from Jamaica include Black Uhuru, Third World Band, Inner Circle, Chalice Reggae Band, Culture, Fab Five and Morgan Heritage. The genre jungle emerged from London's Jamaican diaspora. The birth of hip-hop in New York City owed much to the city's Jamaican community.

Literature

The journalist and author H. G. de Lisser (1878–1944) used his native country as the setting for his many novels. Born in Falmouth, Jamaica, de Lisser worked as a reporter for the Jamaica Times at a young age and in 1920 began publishing the magazine Planters' Punch. The White Witch of Rosehall is one of his better-known novels. He was named Honorary President of the Jamaican Press Association; he worked throughout his professional career to promote the Jamaican sugar industry.

Roger Mais (1905 – 1955), a journalist, poet, and playwright wrote many short stories, plays, and novels, including The Hills Were Joyful Together (1953), Brother Man (1954), and Black Lightning (1955).

Ian Fleming (1908-1964), who had a home in Jamaica where he spent considerable time, repeatedly used the island as a setting in his James Bond novels, including Live and Let Die, Doctor No, 'For Your Eyes Only', The Man with the Golden Gun, and Octopussy and The Living Daylights. In addition, James Bond uses a Jamaica-based cover in Casino Royale. So far, the only James Bond film adaptation to have been set in Jamaica is Doctor No. Filming for the fictional island of San Monique in Live and Let Die took place in Jamaica.

Marlon James (1970), novelist has published three novels: John Crow's Devil (2005), The Book of Night Women (2009) and A Brief History of Seven Killings (2014), winner of the 2015 Man Booker Prize.

Film

The cinema actor Errol Flynn lived with his third wife Patrice Wymore in Port Antonio in the 1950s. He helped develop tourism to this area, popularising trips down rivers on bamboo rafts.^[135]

Jamaica has a history in the film industry dating from the early 1960s. A look at delinquent youth in Jamaica is presented in the 1970s musical crime film The Harder They Come, starring Jimmy Cliff as a frustrated (and psychopathic) reggae musician who descends into a murderous crime spree. The American film Cocktail (1988), starring Tom Cruise, is one of the more popular films to depict Jamaica. Another popular Jamaican-based film is the 1993 Disney comedy Cool Runnings, which is loosely based on the true story of Jamaica's first bobsled team trying to make it in the Winter Olympics.

Cuisine

The island is famous for its Jamaican jerk spice, curries and rice and peas which is integral to Jamaican cuisine. Jamaica is also home to Red Stripe beer and Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee.

National symbols

(From the Jamaica Information Service)^[136]

• National bird: red-billed streamertail (also called doctor bird) (a hummingbird, Trochilus polytmus)
• National flower – lignum vitae (Guiacum officinale)
• National tree: blue mahoe (Hibiscus talipariti elatum)
• National fruit: ackee (Blighia sapida)
• National motto: 'Out of Many, One People.'

Sport

Sport is an integral part of national life in Jamaica and the island's athletes tend to perform to a standard well above what might ordinarily be expected of such a small country.^[137] While the most popular local sport is cricket, on the international stage Jamaicans have tended to do particularly well at track and field athletics.^[137][138]

Jamaica has produced some of the world's most famous cricketers, including George Headley, Courtney Walsh, and Michael Holding.^[139] The country was one of the venues of 2007 Cricket World Cup and the West Indies cricket team is one of 10 ICC full member teams that participate in international Test cricket.^[140] The Jamaica national cricket team competes regionally, and also provides players for the West Indies team. Sabina Park is the only Test venue in the island, but the Greenfield Stadium is also used for cricket.^[141][142]Chris Gayle is the most renowned batsman from Jamaica currently representing the West Indies cricket team.

Since independence Jamaica has consistently produced world class athletes in track and field.^[137] In Jamaica involvement in athletics begins at a very young age and most high schools maintain rigorous athletics programs with their top athletes competing in national competitions (most notably the VMBS Girls and Boys Athletics Championships) and international meets (most notably the Penn Relays). In Jamaica it is not uncommon for young athletes to attain press coverage and national fame long before they arrive on the international athletics stage.

Over the past six decades Jamaica has produced dozens of world class sprinters including Olympic and World Champion Usain Bolt, world record holder in the 100m for men at 9.58s, and 200m for men at 19.19s. Other noteworthy Jamaican sprinters include Arthur Wint, the first Jamaican Olympic gold medalist; Donald Quarrie, Elaine Thompson double Olympic champion from Rio 2016 in the 100m and 200m, Olympic Champion and former 200m world record holder; Roy Anthony Bridge, part of the International Olympic Committee; Merlene Ottey; Delloreen Ennis-London; Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce, the former World and two time Olympic 100m Champion; Kerron Stewart; Aleen Bailey; Juliet Cuthbert; three-time Olympic gold medalist; Veronica Campbell-Brown; Sherone Simpson; Brigitte Foster-Hylton; Yohan Blake; Herb McKenley; George Rhoden, Olympic gold medalist; Deon Hemmings, Olympic gold medalist; as well as Asafa Powell, former 100m world record holder and 2x 100m Olympic finalist and gold medal winner in the men's 2008 Olympic 4 × 100 m. American Olympic winner Sanya Richards-Ross was also born in Jamaica.

Jamaica has also produced several world class amateur and professional boxers including Trevor Berbick and Mike McCallum. First-generation Jamaican athletes have continued to make a significant impact on the sport internationally, especially in the United Kingdom where the list of top British boxers born in Jamaica or of Jamaican parents includes Lloyd Honeyghan, Chris Eubank, Audley Harrison, David Haye, Lennox Lewis and Frank Bruno, Donovan 'Razor' Ruddock, Mike Tyson, and Floyd Mayweather Jr., whose maternal grandfather is Jamaican.^[143]

Association football and horse-racing are other popular sports in Jamaica. The national football team qualified for the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Horse racing was Jamaica's first sport. It was brought in the 1700s by British immigrants to satisfy their longing for their favorite pastime back at home. During slavery, the Afro-Jamaican slaves were considered the best horse jockeys. Today, horse racing provides jobs for about 20,000 people including horse breeders, groomers, and trainers. Also, several Jamaicans are known internationally for their success in horse racing including Richard DePass, who once held the Guinness Book of World Records for the most wins in a day, Canadian awards winner George HoSang, and American award winners Charlie Hussey, Andrew Ramgeet, and Barrington Harvey. Also, there are hundreds of Jamaicans who are employed in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom as exercise riders and groomers.^[144]

Race car driving is also a popular sport in Jamaica with several car racing tracks and racing associations across the country.^[145]

The Jamaica national bobsled team was once a serious contender in the Winter Olympics, beating many well-established teams. Chess and basketball are widely played in Jamaica and are supported by the Jamaica Chess Federation (JCF) and the Jamaica Basketball Federation (JBF), respectively. Netball is also very popular on the island, with the Jamaica national netball team called The Sunshine Girls consistently ranking in the top five in the world.^[146]

Rugby league has been played in Jamaica since 2006.^[147]The Jamaica national rugby league team is made up of players who play in Jamaica and from UK based professional and semi professional clubs (notably in the Super League and Championship). In November 2018 for the first time ever, the Jamaican rugby league team qualified for the Rugby League World Cup after defeating the USA & Canada. Jamaica will play in the 2021 Rugby League World Cup in England.^[148]

According to ESPN, the highest paid Jamaican professional athlete in 2011 was Justin Masterson, starting pitcher for the Cleveland Indians.^[149]

Education

The emancipation of the slaves heralded in the establishment of the Jamaican education system for the masses. Prior to emancipation there were few schools for educating locals. Many sent their children off to England to access quality education.

After emancipation the West Indian Commission granted a sum of money to establish Elementary Schools, now known as All Age Schools. Most of these schools were established by the churches.^[150] This was the genesis of the modern Jamaican school system.

Presently the following categories of schools exist:

• Early childhood – Basic, infant and privately operated pre-school. Age cohort: 2 – 5 years.
• Primary – Publicly and privately owned (privately owned being called preparatory schools). Ages 3 – 12 years.
• Secondary – Publicly and privately owned. Ages 10 – 19 years. The high schools in Jamaica may be either single-sex or co-educational institutions, and many schools follow the traditional English grammar school model used throughout the British West Indies.
• Tertiary – Community colleges; teachers' colleges, with the Mico Teachers' College (now The MICO University College) being the oldest, founded in 1836; the Shortwood Teachers' College (which was once an all-female teacher training institution); vocational training centres, colleges and universities, publicly and privately owned. There are five local universities: the University of the West Indies (Mona Campus); the University of Technology, Jamaica, formerly The College of Art Science and Technology (CAST); the Northern Caribbean University, formerly West Indies College; the University of the Commonwealth Caribbean, formerly the University College of The Caribbean; and the International University of the Caribbean.

Additionally, there are many community and teacher training colleges.

Education is free from the early childhood to secondary levels. There are also opportunities for those who cannot afford further education in the vocational arena, through the Human Employment and Resource Training-National Training Agency (HEART Trust-NTA) programme,^[151] which is opened to all working age national population^[152] and through an extensive scholarship network for the various universities.

Students are taught Spanish in school from the primary level upwards; about 40–45% of educated people in Jamaica knows some form of Spanish.^{[citation needed]}

Economy

Jamaica is a mixed economy with both state enterprises and private sector businesses. Major sectors of the Jamaican economy include agriculture, mining, manufacturing, tourism, petroleum refining, financial and insurance services. Tourism and mining are the leading earners of foreign exchange. Half the Jamaican economy relies on services, with half of its income coming from services such as tourism. An estimated 4.3 million foreign tourists visit Jamaica every year.^[153] According to the World Bank, Jamaica is an upper-middle income country that, like its Caribbean neighbors, is vulnerable to the effects of climate change, flooding, and hurricanes.^[10] In 2018, Jamaica represented the CARICOM Caribbean Community at the G20 and the G7 annual meetings.^[154] In 2019 Jamaica reported its lowest unemployment rate in 50 years.^[155]

Supported by multilateral financial institutions, Jamaica has, since the early 1980s, sought to implement structural reforms aimed at fostering private sector activity and increasing the role of market forces in resource allocation^{[156][157][158]} Since 1991, the government has followed a programme of economic liberalisation and stabilisation by removing exchange controls,^[159][160] floating the exchange rate,^[161][162] cutting tariffs,^[163] stabilising the Jamaican currency, reducing inflation^[164] and removing restrictions on foreign investment.^[165][166] Emphasis has been placed on maintaining strict fiscal discipline, greater openness to trade and financial flows, market liberalisation and reduction in the size of government. During this period, a large share of the economy was returned to private sector ownership through divestment and privatisation programmes.^{[156][157][158]} The free-trade zones at Kingston, Montego Bay and Spanish Town allow duty-free importation, tax-free profits, and free repatriation of export earnings.^[167]

Jamaica's economy grew strongly after the years of independence,^[167] but then stagnated in the 1980s, due to the heavy falls in price of bauxite and fluctuations in the price of agriculture.^[167] The financial sector was troubled in 1994, with many banks and insurance companies suffering heavy losses and liquidity problems.^[167] According to the Commonwealth Secretariat, 'The government set up the Financial Sector Adjustment Company (Finsac) in January 1997 to assist these banks and companies, providing funds in return for equity, and acquired substantial holdings in banks and insurance companies and related companies,.. but it only exasperated the problem, and brought the country into large external debt.^[167] From 2001, once it had restored these banks and companies to financial health, Finsac divested them.'^[167] The Government of Jamaica remains committed to lowering inflation, with a long-term objective of bringing it in line with that of its major trading partners.^[164]

In 1996 and 1997 there was a decrease in GDP largely due to significant problems in the financial sector and, in 1997, a severe island-wide drought (the worst in 70 years) and hurricane that drastically reduced agricultural production.^[168] In 1997 and 1998, nominal GDP was approximately a high of about 8 percent of GDP and then lowered to 4½ percent of GDP in 1999 and 2000.^[169]

The economy in 1997 was marked by low levels of import growth, high levels of private capital inflows and relative stability in the foreign exchange market.^[170]

Recent economic performance shows the Jamaican economy is recovering. Agricultural production, an important engine of growth increased to 5.5% in 2001 compared to the corresponding period in 2000, signaling the first positive growth rate in the sector since January 1997.^[171] In 2018, Jamaica reported a 7.9% increase in corn, 6.1% increase in plantains, 10.4% increase in bananas, 2.2% increase in pineapples, 13.3% increase in dasheen, 24,9% increase in coconuts, and a 10.6% increase in whole milk production.^[172]Bauxite and alumina production increased 5.5% from January to December 1998, compared to the corresponding period in 1997. January's bauxite production recorded a 7.1% increase relative to January 1998 and continued expansion of alumina production through 2009 is planned by Alcoa.^[173] Jamaica is the fifth largest exporter of bauxite in the world, after Australia, China, Brazil and Guinea. The country also exports limestone of which it holds large deposits. The government is currently implementing plans to increase its extraction.^[174]

A Canadian company, Carube Copper Corp, has found and confirmed, '...the existence of at least seven significant Cu/Au porphyry systems (in St. Catherine).' They have estimated that, 'The porphyry distribution found at Bellas Gate is similar to that found in the Northparkes mining district of New South Wales, Australia (which was) sold to China in 2013 for US$820 million.' Carube noted that Jamaica's geology, '... is similar to that of Chile, Argentina and the Dominican Republic — all productive mining jurisdictions.' Mining on the sites began in 2017.^[175]

Tourism, which is the largest foreign exchange earner, showed improvement as well. In 1999, the total visitor arrivals was 2 million, an increase of 100,000 from the previous year.^[176] Since 2017, Jamaica's tourism has risen exponentially, rising to 4.3 million average tourists per year. Jamaica's largest tourist markets are from North America, South America, and Europe. In 2017, Jamaica recorded a 91.3% increase in stopover visitors from Southern and Western Europe (and a 41% increase in stopover arrivals from January to September 2017 over the same period from the previous year) with Germany, Portugal and Spain registering the highest percentage gains.^[177] In 2018, Jamaica won several World Travel Awards in Portugal winning the 'Chairman's Award for Global Tourism Innovation', 'Best Tourist Board in the Caribbean' 'Best Honeymoon Destination', 'Best Culinary Destination', 'World's Leading Beach Destination' and 'World's Leading Cruise Destination'.^[178][179] Two months later, the Travvy Tourism Awards held in New York City, awarded Jamaica's Tourism Minister Edmund Bartlett, with the inaugural Chairman's Award for, 'Global Tourism Innovation for the Development of the Global Tourism Resilience and Crisis Management Centre (GTRCM)'. Bartlett has also won the Pacific Travel Writer's Association's award in Germany for the, '2018 Best Tourism Minister of the Year'.^{[178][179][180]}

Petrojam, Jamaica's national and only petroleum refinery, is co-owned by the Government of Venezuela. Petrojam, '..operates a 35,000 barrel per day hydro-skimming refinery, to produce Automotive Diesel Oil; Heavy Fuel Oil; Kerosene/Jet Fuel, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG), Asphalt and Gasoline.' Customers include the Power industry, Aircraft refuelers, and Local Marketing companies.^[181] On 20 February 2019, the Jamaican Government voted to retake ownership of Venezuela's 49% share.^[182]

Jamaica's agricultural exports are sugar, bananas, cocoa,^[183]coconut, molasses^[184]oranges, limes, grapefruit,^[185]rum, yams, allspice (of which it is the world's largest and 'most exceptional quality' exporter),^[186] and Blue Mountain Coffee which is considered a world renowned gourmet brand.^[184]

Jamaica has a wide variety of industrial and commercial activities. The aviation industry is able to perform most routine aircraft maintenance, except for heavy structural repairs. There is a considerable amount of technical support for transport and agricultural aviation. Jamaica has a considerable amount of industrial engineering, light manufacturing, including metal fabrication, metal roofing, and furniture manufacturing. Food and beverage processing, glassware manufacturing, software and data processing, printing and publishing, insurance underwriting, music and recording, and advanced education activities can be found in the larger urban areas. The Jamaican construction industry is entirely self-sufficient, with professional technical standards and guidance.^[187]

Since the first quarter of 2006, the economy of Jamaica has undergone a period of staunch growth. With inflation for the 2006 calendar year down to 6.0% and unemployment down to 8.9%, the nominal GDP grew by an unprecedented 2.9%.^[188] An investment programme in island transportation and utility infrastructure and gains in the tourism, mining, and service sectors all contributed this figure. All projections for 2007 show an even higher potential for economic growth with all estimates over 3.0% and hampered only by urban crime and public policies.^{[citation needed]}

In 2006, Jamaica became part of the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME) as one of the pioneering members.^[189]

The global economic downturn had a significant impact on the Jamaican economy for the years 2007 to 2009, resulting in negative economic growth. The government implemented a new Debt Management Initiative, the Jamaica Debt Exchange (JDX) on 14 January 2010. The initiative would see holders of Government of Jamaica (GOJ) bonds returning the high interest earning instruments for bonds with lower yields and longer maturities. The offer was taken up by over 95% of local financial institutions and was deemed a success by the government.^[190]

Owing to the success of the JDX program, the Bruce Golding-led government was successful in entering into a borrowing arrangement with the IMF on 4 February 2010 for the amount of US$1.27b. The loan agreement is for a period of three years.^[191]

In April 2014, the Governments of Jamaica and China signed the preliminary agreements for the first phase of the Jamaican Logistics Hub (JLH) – the initiative that aims to position Kingston as the fourth node in the global logistics chain, joining Rotterdam, Dubai and Singapore, and serving the Americas.^[192] The Project, when completed, is expected to provide many jobs for Jamaicans, Economic Zones for multinational companies^[193] and much needed economic growth to alleviate the country's heavy debt-to-GDP ratio. Strict adherence to the IMF's refinancing programme and preparations for the JLH has favourably affected Jamaica's credit rating and outlook from the three biggest rating agencies. In 2018, both Moody's and Standard and Poor Credit ratings upgraded Jamaica's ratings to both 'stable and positive' respectively.^[194][195]

Infrastructure

Transport

The transport infrastructure in Jamaica consists of roadways, railways and air transport, with roadways forming the backbone of the island's internal transport system.

Roadways

The Jamaican road network consists of almost 21,000 kilometres (13,000 mi) of roads, of which over 15,000 kilometres (9,300 mi) is paved.^[2] The Jamaican Government has, since the late 1990s and in cooperation with private investors, embarked on a campaign of infrastructural improvement projects, one of which includes the creation of a system of freeways, the first such access-controlled roadways of their kind on the island, connecting the main population centres of the island. This project has so far seen the completion of 33 kilometres (21 mi) of freeway.

Railways

Railways in Jamaica no longer enjoy the prominent position they once did, having been largely replaced by roadways as the primary means of transport. Of the 272 kilometres (169 mi) of railway found in Jamaica, only 57 kilometres (35 mi) remain in operation, currently used to transport bauxite.^[2]

On 13 April 2011, limited passenger service was resumed between May Pen, Spanish Town and Linstead.

Air transport

There are three international airports in Jamaica with modern terminals, long runways, and the navigational equipment required to accommodate the large jet aircraft used in modern and air travel: Norman Manley International Airport in Kingston; Ian Fleming International Airport in Boscobel, Saint Mary Parish; and the island's largest and busiest airport, Sir Donald Sangster International Airport in the resort city of Montego Bay. Manley and Sangster International airports are home to the country's national airline, Air Jamaica. In addition there are local commuter airports at Tinson Pen (Kingston), Port Antonio, and Negril, which cater to internal flights only. Many other small, rural centres are served by private fields on sugar estates or bauxite mines.

Ports, shipping and lighthouses

Owing to its location in the Caribbean Sea in the shipping lane to the Panama Canal and relative proximity to large markets in North America and emerging markets in Latin America, Jamaica receives high container traffic. The container terminal at the Port of Kingston has undergone large expansion in capacity in recent years to handle growth both already realised as well as that which is projected in coming years.^[196] Montego Freeport in Montego Bay also handles a variety of cargo like (though more limited than) the Port of Kingston, mainly agricultural products.

There are several other ports positioned around the island, including Port Esquivel in St. Catherine (WINDALCO), Rocky Point in Clarendon, Port Kaiser in St. Elizabeth, Port Rhoades in Discovery Bay, Reynolds Pier in Ocho Rios, and Boundbrook Port in Port Antonio.

To aid the navigation of shipping, Jamaica operates nine lighthouses.

Energy

Jamaica depends on petroleum imports to satisfy its national energy needs.^[2] Many test sites have been explored for oil, but no commercially viable quantities have been found.^[197] The most convenient sources of imported oil and motor fuels (diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel) are from Mexico and Venezuela.

Jamaica's electrical power is produced by diesel (bunker oil) generators located in Old Harbour. Other smaller power stations (most owned by the Jamaica Public Service Company,^[198] the island's electricity provider) support the island's electrical grid including the Hunts Bay Power Station, the Bogue Power Station, the Rockfort Power Station and small hydroelectric plants on the White River, Rio Bueno, Morant River, Black River (Maggotty) and Roaring River.^[199] A wind farm, owned by the Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica, was established at Wigton, Manchester.^[200]

Jamaica has successfully operated a SLOWPOKE-2 nuclear reactor of 20 kW capacity since the early 1980s, but there are no plans to expand nuclear power at present.^[201]

Jamaica imports approximately 80,000 barrels (13,000 m³) of oil energy products per day,^[197] including asphalt and lubrication products. Just 20% of imported fuels are used for road transportation, the rest being used by the bauxite industry, electricity generation, and aviation. 30,000 barrels/day of crude imports are processed into various motor fuels and asphalt by the Petrojam Refinery in Kingston.^[202]

Jamaica produces enormous quantities of drinking alcohol (at least 5% water content), most of which appears to be consumed as beverages, and none used as motor fuel. Facilities exist to refine hydrous ethanol feedstock into anhydrous ethanol (0% water content), but as of 2007, the process appeared to be uneconomic and the production plant was idle.^[203]

Communication

Jamaica has a fully digital telephone communication system with a mobile penetration of over 95%.^[204]

The country's two mobile operators – FLOW Jamaica (formerly LIME, bMobile and Cable and Wireless Jamaica) and Digicel Jamaica have spent millions in network upgrades and expansion. The newest operator, Digicel was granted a licence in 2001 to operate mobile services in the newly liberalised telecom market that had once been the sole domain of the incumbent FLOW (then Cable and Wireless Jamaica) monopoly. Digicel opted for the more widely used GSM wireless system, while a past operator, Oceanic (which became Claro Jamaica and later merged with Digicel Jamaica in 2011) opted for the CDMA standard. FLOW (formerly 'LIME' – pre-Columbus Communications merger) which had begun with TDMA standard, subsequently upgraded to GSM in 2002, decommissioned TDMA in 2006 and only utilised that standard until 2009 when LIME launched its 3G network.^[205] Both operators currently provide islandwide coverage with HSPA+ (3G) technology. Currently, only Digicel offers LTE to its customers^[206] whereas FLOW Jamaica has committed to launching LTE in the cities of Kingston and Montego Bay, places where Digicel's LTE network is currently only found in, in short order.

A new entrant to the Jamaican communications market, Flow Jamaica, laid a new submarine cable connecting Jamaica to the United States. This new cable increases the total number of submarine cables connecting Jamaica to the rest of the world to four. Cable and Wireless Communications (parent company of LIME) acquired the company in late 2014 and replaced their brand LIME with FLOW.^[207]FLOW Jamaica currently has the most broadband and cable subscribers on the island and also has 1 million mobile subscribers,^[208] second to Digicel (which had, at its peak, over 2 million mobile subscriptions on its network).

Digicel entered the broadband market in 2010 by offering WiMAX broadband,^[209] capable of up to 6 Mbit/s per subscriber. To further their broadband share post-LIME/FLOW merger in 2014, the company introduced a new broadband service called Digicel Play,^[210] which is Jamaica's second FTTH offering (after LIME's deployment in selected communities in 2011^[211]). It is currently only available in the parishes of Kingston, Portmore and St. Andrew. It offers speeds of up to 200 Mbit/s down, 100 Mbit/s up via a pure fibre optic network. Digicel's competitor, FLOW Jamaica, has a network consisting of ADSL, Coaxial and Fibre to the Home (inherited from LIME) and only offers speeds up to 100 Mbit/s. FLOW has committed to expanding its Fibre offering to more areas in order to combat Digicel's entrance into the market.

It was announced that the Office and Utilities Regulations (OUR), Ministry of Science, Technology, Energy and Mining (MSTEM) and the Spectrum Management Authority (SMA) have given approval for another mobile operator licence in January 2016.^[212] The identity of this entrant was ascertained on May 20, 2016, when the Jamaican Government named the new carrier as Symbiote Investments Limited operating under the name Caricel.^[213] The company will focus on 4G LTE data offerings and will first go live in the Kingston Metropolitan Area and will expand to the rest of Jamaica thereafter.

See also

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Further reading

• Ahmed, Faiz (2008). The Development Path Taken by Jamaica: A brief account of the islands natural-history, economic policies, and social conditions(PDF). (pp. 45–83)
• Arbell, Mordehay (2000). The Portuguese Jews of Jamaica. Canoe Press. ISBN978-976-8125-69-9.
• Ammar, N. 'From Whence they came'. Jamaica Journal.
• Bahadur, Gaiutra. Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture. The University of Chicago (2014), ISBN978-0-226-21138-1
• Chapman, Valentine Jackson (1961). The marine algae of Jamaica: Myxophyceae and Chlorophyceae.
• Chapman, Valentine Jackson (1963). The marine Algae of Jamaica: Part II: Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.
• Hall, D. 'Bounties European Immigration with Special Reference of the German Settlement at Seaford Town, Parts 1 and 2'. Jamaica Journal, 8, (4), 48–54 and 9 (1), 2–9.
• Issa, Suzanne (1994). Mr Jamaica, Abe Issa: a pictorial biography. S. Issa. ISBN978-976-8091-69-7.
• Jacobs, H. P. (2003). Germany in Jamaica. Indian heritage in Jamaica. Jamaica Journal, 10, (2,3,4), 10–19,
• Mullally, R (2003). ''One Love' The Black Irish of Jamaica'. Jamaica Journal. 42: 104–116.
• Parboosingh, I. S. 'An Indo-Jamaica beginning'. Jamaica Journal. 18 (3): 2–10, 12.
• Senior, Olive (2003). Encyclopedia of Jamaican Heritage. Twin Guinep Publishers. ISBN978-976-8007-14-8.
• Sherlock, Philip Manderson; Bennett, Hazel (1998). The Story of the Jamaican People. Ian Randle Publishers. ISBN978-1-55876-145-2.
• Thomson, Ian (2009). The Dead Yard: Tales of Modern Jamaica. Nation Books. ISBN978-0-571-22761-7.
• Williams, Joseph John (1932). Whence the 'Black Irish' of Jamaica?. L. MacVeagh, Dial Press, Inc.
• The Gleaner. Seaford Town Advertising Feature. 14 August 2003, D7-8,

• Bernstein, Antje (2006). 'English in Jamaica: The Coexistence of Standard Jamaican English and the English-based Jamaican Creole'. English Language and Literature Studies. seminar paper. Retrieved 31 August 2015.

External links

Governmental details

• Jamaica at the Royal Family website

General information

• 'Jamaica'. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Jamaica from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Jamaica at Curlie
• Jamaica from the BBC News
• National Library of Jamaica materials in the Digital Library of the Caribbean
• Key Development Forecasts for Jamaica from International Futures

Coordinates: 18°10′48″N77°24′00″W / 18.18000°N 77.40000°W